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Microbial Control during Hydraulic Fracking Operations
Published in Kenneth Wunch, Marko Stipaničev, Max Frenzel, Microbial Bioinformatics in the Oil and Gas Industry, 2021
Renato De Paula, Irwan Yunus, Conor Pierce
Hypochlorite is available as either a bulk solution of 11%–14% sodium hypochlorite or can be generated on-site through the electrolysis of a sodium chloride solution in water. Both methods have disadvantages. Bulk storage of sodium hypochlorite requires a climate-controlled environment to prevent hypochlorite degradation over time and on-site generation used to be limited to concentrations of <1.0%. More recent advances in the on-site generation of hypochlorite solutions allow for concentrations of up to 15% utilizing a mixture of hydroxide and chlorine instead of sodium chloride. It is also important to note that hypochlorite will generate by-products resulting from the reaction of chlorine with hydrocarbons in treated fluids. The most common of these by-products are trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, both of which are listed as carcinogenic by the Environmental Protection Agency (Duong et al., 2003).
Water Treatment and Purification
Published in P.K. Tewari, Advanced Water Technologies, 2020
Chlorine is a common chemical disinfectant. One of the common methods for generatingchlorine is salt water electrolysis, resulting in production of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). H2O+NaCl=NaOCl+H2Sodium hypochlorite (5–15% conc), when added in raw water, reacts as per following equation: NaOCl+H2O=HOCl+NaOHThe compound HOCl is a weak acid known as hypochlorous acid. When dissolved in water, hypochlorous acid is dissociated into a single proton, H+, and hypochlorite ion, OCl−. Generally, their pathogen elimination effectiveness is relatively low.
Water Treatment
Published in Frank R. Spellman, The Science of Water, 2020
Hypochlorites must be stored properly to maintain their strengths. Calcium hypochlorite must be stored in airtight containers in cool, dry, dark locations. Sodium hypochlorite degrades relatively quickly even when properly stored; it can lose more than half of its strength in three to six months. Operators should purchase hypochlorites in small quantities to assure they are used while still strong. Old chemicals should be discarded safely.
Use of tannin-based coagulant and chlorine dioxide in treating brewing water: reduction of trihalomethanes and impact on physicochemical and sensory quality
Published in Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 2022
Arliana Caon, Gilmar Conte, Everton Skoronski
Chlorine-based disinfectants can additionally be used to make water drinkable, in which sodium hypochlorite stands out due to its ease of application, low cost, and high efficiency, thereby having great applicability.[19] According to Art. 32 of Ordinance GM/MS No. 888 of May 4, 2021,[20] it is mandatory to maintain at least 0.2 mg/L of free residual chlorine or chlorine dioxide in the treated water, and its upper limit is 5 mg/L. Although the disinfection step is necessary to guarantee microbiological safety, using some disinfectants can affect the health of those who use them in the case of residual levels above the limit established by legislation and mainly due to their disinfection by-products (DBPs) generated.[21] Thus, conventional WTPs also need to consider alternatives to minimize DBP formation.[22] The use of free chlorine in water treatment with the presence of precursors, such as fulvic and humic acids, causes the formation of trihalomethane compounds (THMs), and their presence in drinking water arouses growing interest from a public health perspective.23 The International Agency for Research on Cancer has historically classified chloroform and bromodichloromethane as potential carcinogens among THMs.[4,24] Ordinance GM/MS No. 888, of May 4, 2021[20] establishes the potability standard for chemical substances that pose a health risk, and the maximum limit allowed for the THM concentration in the water supply is 100 µg/L.
An emerging pretreatment technology for reducing postharvest loss of vegetables-a case study of red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) drying
Published in Drying Technology, 2022
Li-Zhen Deng, Chun-Hong Xiong, Parag P. Sutar, Arun S. Mujumdar, Yu-Peng Pei, Xu-Hai Yang, Xian-Wei Ji, Qian Zhang, Hong-Wei Xiao
Red pepper is frequently contaminated with high levels of bacteria, molds, and yeasts due to the poor sanitary conditions during cultivation and harvesting, which causes the high microbial load on the dried products.[19] Furthermore, foodborne pathogens like Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus have been detected in dried red pepper.[20] Dried red pepper is usually consumed directly or as an ingredient in many ready-to-eat food products. When rehydrated or used in food with higher water activity, surviving microbes can propagate to levels that could constitute a risk to consumers. Moreover, contamination with mold may result in product spoilage and even production of mycotoxins, which are severely toxic to human and animal health.[21] Mycotoxin is often detected in dried red peppers, and it is challenging to destroy aflatoxins that are resistant to the various extreme environment.[14,21] The thermal treatment is effective in eliminating microorganisms in food.[22] However, dried products' low water activity environments offer considerable protection against microorganisms, while their thermal resistance increases as the water activity decrease.[22] There are various disinfection technologies, such as chlorine dioxide, ozone, electrolyzed water, sodium hypochlorite.[23,24] Those treatments either need a long exposure time or increase the moisture content of dried products. Therefore, it might be desirable to decontaminate the fresh sample before drying.
Efficacy of four cleaning solutions for the decontamination of selected cytotoxic drugs on the different surfaces of an automated compounding system
Published in Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 2019
Matteo Federici, Jacopo Raffaelli, Demis Paolucci, Rudolf Schierl, Irene Krämer
Corresponding to other published studies,[12–14,16,19–23] sodium hypochlorite solution revealed to be the most effective cleaning solution. Nevertheless, the use of sodium hypochlorite implies various drawbacks[13] such as skin and eye irritations, unpleasant odor, formation of mutagenic residues resulting from oxidative degradation reactions, and surface damage.