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Treatment of Pharmaceutical Industry Effluents
Published in Mihir Kumar Purkait, Piyal Mondal, Chang-Tang Chang, Treatment of Industrial Effluents, 2019
Mihir Kumar Purkait, Piyal Mondal, Chang-Tang Chang
Cokgor et al. (2004) studied the penicillin formulation waste composed of wash water. They used ozonation (pretreatment) coupled with biological AS treatment by synthetic biomass with 30% COD. Ozonation removed 34% COD and 24% TOC, and then the water showed efficient COD removal with enhanced biodegradability using AS. Penicillin formulation effluents sometimes have pollutants such as tylosin, which have refractory action on biological processes and thus the use of a hybrid process leads to complete removal. Tylosin- and avilamycin-containing effluents were treated by a hybrid upflow anaerobic stage reactor (UASR) by Chelliapan and Sallis (2011). For avilamycin macrolide and tylosin antibiotic waste stream, UASR can be used commendably as an option for pretreatment with a COD reduction of 70%–75%; thus, in anaerobic conditions, tylosin can be degraded effectively. Tekin et al. (2006) studied the manufacturing process and wash waters containing traces of organic compounds, iodine, and metal salts with 900–6,800 mg/L COD and 85–3,600 mg/L BOD. The AOP was coupled with biological treatment to tackle this type of effluent. The Fenton oxidation (pretreatment) coagulation stage followed by aerobic biological degradation in sequencing batch reactor gave 45%–50% COD removal and the biological treatment reduced the COD to 98%.
Formulation Development of Small-Volume Parenteral Products
Published in Sandeep Nema, John D. Ludwig, Parenteral Medications, 2019
Madhav S. Kamat, Patrick P. DeLuca
Injectable formulations are often painful and irritating following injection as a result of cell damage such as phlebitis. Sometimes the pain/irritation response is associated with the active drug(s) present in the formulation, for example, macrolide antibiotic [149] and excipients [150]. Pain on injection may occur during and immediately following the injection or it may be a delayed or prolonged type of pain which increases in severity after subsequent injections. The actual cause of the pain is often unknown and will vary significantly among patients according to the product. In some cases, pain may be reduced by minor formulation changes such as adjusting tonicity and pH or adding an anesthetic agent such as benzyl alcohol or lidocaine hydrochloride. In other cases, pain is more inherent to the drug and the problem is more difficult or impossible to resolve. Pain, soreness, and tissue inflammation are often encountered in parenteral suspensions, especially those containing a large amount of solids. A number of in vivo (animal studies) and in vitro studies to evaluate hemolysis, precipitation, phlebitis, and pain upon injection have been reviewed [151–154]. It is important that the formulator must evaluate the potential of the formulation to causes above mentioned problems using these or other suitable techniques.
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Topical Drug Delivery
Published in Raj K. Keservani, Anil K. Sharma, Rajesh K. Kesharwani, Drug Delivery Approaches and Nanosystems, 2017
Sonia Trombino, Roberta Cassano
More recently, Butani et al. (2016) designed and developed SLNs to improve topical application of amphotericin B, a broad-spectrum antifungal and antiprotozoal macrolide polyene antibiotic. It possesses activity against experimental cutaneous leishmaniosis and used in clinical mucocutaneous and cutaneous leishmaniosis infections resistant to antimony treatment (Yardley and Croft, 2000). SLNs particles were prepared with the aim to overcome the problem of dermato pharmacotherapy such as limited local activity and enhance drug penetration into the skin. Amphotericin B loaded SLNs were prepared by novel solvent diffusion method and were characterized for particle size, zeta potential, drug entrapment, surface morphology, in vitro antifungal activity, ex vivo permeation, retention and skin-irritation. Different SLN formulations of amphotericin B were prepared but the best was that (SLN5) with drug: lipid ratio 1:10, and Pluronic F 127 0.25% as surfactant. They showed an average size of 111.1 ± 2.2 nm, zeta potential of −23.98 ± 1.36 mV and 93.8% of drug entrapment. The SLN5 formulation exhibited higher drug permeation as compared to plain drug dispersion and higher zone of inhibition in Trichophyton rubrum fungal species. The formulation was found to be stable at 2–8°C and about 25°C for the period of three months.
Antibiotic resistance in wastewater, does the context matter? Poland and Portugal as a case study
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Ivone Vaz-Moreira, Monika Harnisz, Joana Abreu-Silva, Damian Rolbiecki, Ewa Korzeniewska, Aneta Luczkiewicz, Célia M. Manaia, Grażyna Plaza
The results obtained for macrolides in raw wastewater indirectly confirmed the growing use of the newer generation (i.e., broad-spectrum) of antimicrobials in Poland, such as the new class of macrolides (azithromycin and clarithromycin, if compared with erythromycin) (Table 2). However, such tendency was not confirmed in Portugal, where in the UWWTP influent was mainly detected erythromycin (up to 2.300 µg/L). It can be partly explained by the difference in medication structure in both countries, as well as the possibility to buy antimicrobials over the counter. It was estimated, for example, that in a UWWTP serving a municipality of about 571 350 residents (average flow 93 000 m3/d; average load 750 000 p.e.) the mean load of azithromycin in the UWWTP inlet might reach 265 kg per year, and be reduced to 76.1 kg per year in the outlet (Langas et al., 2019). Azithromycin is a re-positioned macrolide antibiotic, active against both Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. However, the unique chemical architecture of this and other macrolides makes that in addition to the antibacterial effect they may also have an antiviral effect. Thus, the potential to treat or prevent viral co-infection (including new influenza A(H1N1), Zika, and possibly others) (effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 is under debate) (Sterenczak et al., 2020; Tran et al., 2019), might increase their usage.
Evaluating aquatic macrophytes for removing erythromycin from contaminated water: floating or submerged?
Published in International Journal of Phytoremediation, 2022
Camila Silva Rocha, Leticia Yoshie Kochi, Gabriela Breternitz Ribeiro, Daiane Cristina Rocha, Daniella Nogueira Moraes Carneiro, Marcelo Pedrosa Gomes
Erythromycin is commonly encountered in aquatic environments (Chen et al. 2016; Li and Zhang 2020). That antibiotic belongs to the macrolides group, and shows wide spectrum effects on gram-positive bacteria, and is used to treat illnesses and infections of the respiratory and urinary tracts (Veseli et al. 2019). Erythromycin concentrations varying from 0.97 to 627.8 ng l−1, have been encountered in surface waters and urban and rural residual waters (including at 82.52 ng l−1 in rural drinking water), and at concentrations from 5 to 682 ng l−1 in domestic and hospital sewage (Xu et al. 2014; Liu et al. 2018; Kortesmäki et al. 2020; Meng et al. 2021); it has recently been encountered in freshwater systems at concentrations of up to 75 µg l−1 (Schafhauser et al. 2018). Although used worldwide, only limited information is available concerning erythromycin concentrations in water systems in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Europe (Schafhauser et al. 2018). Erythromycin has been listed for environmental monitoring by the European Union (UE 2015/495) as presenting contamination risks to the environment, agricultural products, aquatic organisms, and human health (Desbiolles et al. 2018; Kortesmäki et al. 2020); it is listed in the Brazilian National Plan for Controlling Residues and Contaminants (PNCRC/Animal), with established limits of 200, 40, and 10 µg l−1 in samples of meat, milk, and honey, respectively. No parameters, however, have been established for water contamination.
Transformation of PPCPs in the environment: Review of knowledge and classification of pathways according to parent molecule structures
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2023
Kevin Bonnot, Pierre Benoit, Laure Mamy, Dominique Patureau
Finally, the Cluster 9 was characterized by the largest number of atoms (median value = 124) (Table S5). The seven molecules were mostly macrolides (azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, roxithromycin and tylosin) in addition to ivermectin and monensin. The molecular descriptors that best defined these molecules were the number of hydroxyl groups -OH (5), the number of secondary alcohols -OHs (3), the number of tertiary alcohols -OHt (1), the number of aliphatic esters -RCOOR (1), and the number of aliphatic primary amines –RNH2(1). There were 233 fragments unique to this cluster.