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Hybrid Energy Systems for Manufacturing Industry
Published in Yatish T. Shah, Hybrid Energy Systems, 2021
The estimates of the potential role of biomass in 2050 are strongly sensitive to the state of the markets for biomass trading among different regions. If there is no interregional trading of biomass, the potential contribution of biomass in industry is estimated to be 18.3 EJ/y; if there are liquid markets for interregional biomass trading, this contribution is estimated to be 30.3 EJ/y. Transporting biomass is unlikely to have a significant impact on overall emission reductions. A state-of-the-art coal-fired power plant with 46% efficiency cofiring pellets shipped by a 30 kiloton (kt) ship over 6,800 km would produce emissions of around 85 g of CO2/kilowatt hour (kWh). Using bio-coal5 shipped by an 80 kt ship over 11,000 km, the emissions would be reduced to 32 g of CO2/kWh. By comparison, the same power plant using coal would emit 796 g of CO2/kWh [1,2,12,13,20,80–85].
Thermodynamic Properties and Equations of State
Published in Robert E. Masterson, Nuclear Reactor Thermal Hydraulics, 2019
where N is the number of molecules in the gas. For n = 1 mol, N is equal to the number of particles in 1 mol, which corresponds to Avogadro’s number Ao. The product of Boltzmann’s constant and the absolute temperature (kT) then acquires the units of energy. When it comes to a gas, this energy is normally measured in joules. Thus, the left‑hand side of Equation 7.97, which is equal to PV, can be loosely interpreted as the flow energy or flow work that the gas is capable of performing. Practically speaking, Boltzmann’s constant is the fundamental link between the microscopic world of nuclear particles and the macroscopic world of gases and fluids. It relates the particle energy at a molecular level to the absolute temperature of a particle. The values of Avogadro’s number, the universal gas constant, and Boltzmann’s constant are presented in Table 7.5. The values of Boltzmann’s constant are also shown for several different unit systems in Table 7.6.
Nuclear reactors and their fuel cycles
Published in R.J. Pentreath, Nuclear Power, Man and the Environment, 2019
where N0 is the number of neutrons present at time zero, x is the increase in neutrons per fission and g the generation time, i.e. the number of generations of fissioned nuclei. One mole of 235U (i.e. 235 g) contains 6 × 1023 atoms and thus its complete fission would require this number of neutrons. The fission of 1 kg 235U would therefore require 2.6 × 1024 neutrons and from equation (4.1) it can be deduced that, with an x value close to unity, this number of neutrons would be obtained after 56 generations. The practical application of such a calculation was quickly appreciated as a means of producing an enormous explosion; the necessary fission generation time would be approximately 10-8 s and the energy released equivalent to that of 16 kt of TNT.
Aerogel composites and blankets with embedded fibrous material by ambient drying: Reviewing their production, characteristics, and potential applications
Published in Drying Technology, 2023
Jaya Sharma, Javed Sheikh, B. K. Behera
Silica aerogel blankets are a perfect replacement for typical insulating materials like polystyrene or polyurethane foam because of their low heat conductivity and the inorganic character of silica aerogels.[80] In addition, there are several additional crucial considerations: less than half of the thickness is needed for aerogel-based thermal insulation materials. The cost of aerogels is roughly 8–9 times higher than comparable inorganic-based materials or polymeric foams.[81] They are entirely harmless to humans and the environment since they are amorphous. In monolithic non-evacuated aerogels, convection heat transfer may be ignored in porous materials with void regions less than 4 mm. In order to get the overall thermal conductivity, many factors such as radiation, convection, conduction through gas, and solid are illustrated in Figure 13. Equation (2) can be used to quantify the overall thermal conductivity.[82] where the total thermal conductivity, kT, is the sum of all four components: ks (solid), kg (gas), kr (radiative), and kc (convection).
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system based output power controller in grid-connected photovoltaic systems
Published in Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2021
Sachpreet Kaur, Tarlochan Kaur, Rintu Khanna
In the above-mentioned equation, T is the PV operating temperature (in ), k is the Boltzmann constant (1.3806503*10−23 J/K), N is the quality factor of diode and q is the charge of electrons (1.60217646*10−19 C). The thermal voltage is expressed as kT/q. The diode saturation currentand the solar-generated current (are computed using Eq. 2 and Eq. 3, respectively (Castro, Rodríguez-Rodríguez, and Cecilia 2020),