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Integrated Brine Management: A Circular Economy Approach
Published in Panagiotis Tsakalides, Athanasia Panousopoulou, Grigorios Tsagkatakis, Luis Montestruque, Smart Water Grids, 2018
Dimitris Xevgenos, Despina Bakogianni, Katherine-Joanne Haralambous, Maria Loizidou
During the evaporation of seawater, salts start to precipitate gradually. Iron oxide (Fe2O3 $ Fe_{2}O_{3} $ ) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3 $ CaCO_3 $ ) start to crystallize first with the amount of Fe2O3 $ Fe_{2}O_{3} $ produced being negligible. Then calcium sulfate (CaSO4 $ CaSO_4 $ ) precipitates, followed by sodium chloride, and the so-called bitterns. The bitterns comprise a collection of magnesium, potassium, sulfate, and chloride salts [11]. The gradual deposition of these salts during evaporation of seawater is presented in Geertman [11] as a function of the density of the brine expressed as degrees Baume.
Magnesite mineralization of the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians
Published in Adam Piestrzyński, Mineral Deposits at the Beginning of the 21st Century, 2001
Deposition of thick series of evaporites is widespread in the Permoscythian strata of the Upper Austroalpine unit. High degrees of evaporation (evaporation index >10) produced residual “bitterns” with high salinities and high concentrations of Br, Mg, K, and SO4. The high density of these hypersaline lagoon water and/or tidal porewater caused seepage-reflux dolomitzation and carbonatization by displacing less dense marine porewater in the underlying permeable platform carbonates. The extent of fractionation of the fluids and the development of an “evaporation trend” is a proof for the passage of evaporitic bittern brines descending into the subsurface. During their downward flow these fluids can be incorporated into hydrothermal systems still exhibiting their original anion ratios.
Water Quality Interpretation
Published in Arthur W. Hounslow, Water Quality Data, 2018
Bitterns are the residual seawater remaining after halite has precipitated out, and are typically rich in magnesium. Rittenhouse (1967) suggests that Br/TDS greater than twice that of seawater are probably bitterns from rocks surrounding evaporites. The formation of evaporites has been studied by the experimental evaporation of seawater. Zherebtsova and Volkova (1966) from Carpenter (1978) showed that during the evaporation of seawater essentially all of the K, Rb, Li, and Br remain in solution until potash salts begin to precipitate, and that most of the Li and Br remain in solution during potash salt deposition.
Resource recovery and utilization of bittern wastewater from salt production: a review of recovery technologies and their potential applications
Published in Environmental Technology Reviews, 2021
Arseto Yekti Bagastyo, Afrah Zhafirah Sinatria, Anita Dwi Anggrainy, Komala Affiyanti Affandi, Sucahyaning Wahyu Trihasti Kartika, Ervin Nurhayati
Bittern is a concentrated brine with a density of 29–30°Bé (salinity 299.8–310.4 g L–1 at 25°C) [5], which forms a residual stream in the pond after the evaporation and crystallization processes of sodium chloride. This stream contains major elements such as chloride, magnesium, sulfate, sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, and other minor elements such as bromide, boron, cobalt, chromium, ferric, manganese, nickel, and antimony [6,7]. Although the quantity of bittern generated by these different methods has been estimated as 1 m3 for each ton of sea salt produced, the concentration of the major elements in the bittern may correspond to ten million tons of salt produced [8].
Nutrient recovery by struvite precipitation, ion exchange and adsorption from source-separated human urine – a review
Published in Environmental Technology Reviews, 2018
Bittern is a solution that remains after evaporation of halite (common salt) from brines and/or seawater. It is rich in sodium (3200–78,100 mg/L), potassium (1900–12,300 mg/L), chloride (17,400–202,000 mg/L), and bromide (5300 mg/L) [106]. These ions present in bittern may hinder struvite precipitation process [106].