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Human physiology, hazards and health risks
Published in Stephen Battersby, Clay's Handbook of Environmental Health, 2023
Revati Phalkey, Naima Bradley, Alec Dobney, Virginia Murray, John O’Hagan, Mutahir Ahmad, Darren Addison, Tracy Gooding, Timothy W Gant, Emma L Marczylo, Caryn L Cox
Nerves from the anterior horn cells carry nerve impulses or messages which enable the muscle fibres to contract. If an anterior horn cell discharges slowly or at a very low frequency, the muscles tend to be relaxed or flaccid. When the rate of discharge from the neurons increases, one may see coordinated contractions. However, these motor neurons are capable of discharging at very fast rates, usually in disease states leading to either tremulous contractions (clonus) or sustained contractions (tetanus). Tetanus is also the name given to an infection (lockjaw) caused by the tetanus bacillus (Clostridium tetani), which occurs when wounds become contaminated with soil/faeces which contains the bacteria. The infection releases tetanus toxin which acts on the anterior horn of the spinal cord producing repeated activation of the motor units. Tetanus was a serious sequel of accidents and war injuries before immunisation against the disease became available.
Biological Hazards
Published in W. David Yates, Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide, 2020
Tetanus (also known as “lockjaw”) is a serious disease that causes painful tightening of the muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to “locking” of the jaw so the victim cannot open his mouth or swallow. It is a disease of the nervous system caused by Clostridium tetani bacteria, a rod-shaped, anaerobic bacterium. It is found as spores in soil or as parasites in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. Tetanus leads to death in approximately one in ten cases.5C. tetani enters the body through a break in the skin. However, tetanus is not transmitted from person to person. Tetanus can be prevented through the use of an effective vaccine. Occupations at greatest risk of contracting tetanus include those who work around domestic animals and soil.
Human physiology, hazards and health risks
Published in Stephen Battersby, Clay's Handbook of Environmental Health, 2016
David J. Baker, Naima Bradley, Alec Dobney, Virginia Murray, Jill R. Meara, John O’Hagan, Neil P. McColl, Caryn L. Cox
Nerves from the anterior horn cells carry nerve impulses or messages which enable the muscle fibres to contract. If an anterior horn cell discharges slowly or at a very low frequency, the muscles tend to be relaxed or flaccid. When the rate of discharge from the neurons increases, one may see coordinated contractions. However, these motor neurons are capable of discharging at very fast rates, usually in disease states leading to either tremulous contractions (clonus) or sustained contractions (tetanus). Tetanus is also the name given to an infection (lock-jaw) caused by the tetanus bacillus (Clostridium tetani), which occurs when wounds become contaminated with soil/faeces which contains the bacteria. The infection releases tetanus toxin which acts on the anterior horn of the spinal cord producing repeated activation of the motor units. Tetanus was a serious sequel of accidents and war injuries before immunisation against the disease became available.
An effective, simple and low-cost pretreatment for culture clarification in tetanus toxoid production
Published in Preparative Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2018
Lucía Avila, Osvaldo Cascone, Mirtha Biscoglio, Matías Fingermann
Tetanus toxin, produced by Clostridium tetani, is the responsible of a severe disease known as tetanus.2 This toxin, one of the most potent known, is an heterodimeric protein composed of one heavy chain (100 kDa) linked by a single disulfide bond to a light chain (50 kDa).3 Tetanus still remains a serious threat to public health, with over 200,000 fatal cases per year around the world.4 Chemically inactivated tetanus toxin (tetanus toxoid, TT), produced during the culture of a virulent C. tetani strain, is an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) of anti-tetanus vaccines.5,6 Tetanus toxin expression during bacterial growth is the consequence of the activation of the lytic cycle of a lysogenized-phage. Biomass removal from the fermented broth is most commonly performed by filtration.7–11 Lowering clarification costs could thus help making a more affordable production of this important API. In this direction, flocculants, a class of materials that favor solid-liquid separation, increase the efficacy of filtration trains without adversely impacting on the recovery of biopharmaceuticals.12–14 Chitosan stands out from other flocculants due to its characteristic low-cost, high accessibility, non-toxicity, and biodegradability.15 Its safety is exemplified by its increasing use as an adjuvant during the development of new vaccine formulations.16,17 In this work, chitosan is assessed for the first time as part of a primary clarification operation, with an aim on reducing membrane filtration needs and therefore the costs for secondary clarification operations, during TT production.
Synthesis and characterization of nanofiber of gelatin, polyvinyl alcohol, and chitosan for wound dressing application
Published in The Journal of The Textile Institute, 2023
Padideh Aliagha, Sahar Amiri, Majid Ghiass
The entry and growth of germs in the wound may lead to infection, and if the wound does not heal completely after 48 h, it will probably become infected due to the entry of dust and germs that remain in the wound. There are several symptoms associated with infection, including high fever and fatigue, severe pain and burning, swellings and redness surrounding the injury, and most importantly, tetanus infection in deep or dirty wounds (Bakhsheshi-Rad et al., 2017; Makwena et al., 2021; Mohamed et al., 2022; Rezvani Ghomi et al., 2019; Sung Giu, 2022). Wounds are used as a bed for wound healing. The primary role of such a bed is to maintain skin moisture and minimize wound damage, and barrier to the entry of external factor (More et al., 2021). Various antibacterial medications such as ciprofloxacin and ibuprofen are used to prevent and treat wound infection; they also eliminate fever and analgesia, especially in inflammatory pai (Sahoo et al., 2011). Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is a common antimicrobial drug used to treat various diseases, such as skin, soft tissue, bronchitis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and chlamydial infections, such as those caused by tuberculosis (Arulkumar et al., 2019; Thairin & Wutticharoenmongkol, 2022; Ye et al., 2020). Ibuprofen, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, is used as a pill or syrup. Ibuprofen’s (IBU) anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and pain-relieving properties make it an excellent choice for wound healing. Because of these properties, ibuprofen is not only safe and well tolerated, but it also prevents acute inflammation (Dongzhi et al., 2007; Masoumi et al., 2017; 2019; Sirui et al., 2022). IBU is also used to minimize complications, infections, and inflammation and accelerate wound healing, creating a positive environment that allows drugs to be added to the electrospun nanofiber. On the other hand, synthetic polymers have found several commercial applications in wound dressing as polymeric foams, hydrogels, and hydrocolloids (Dongzhi et al., 2007; Erick José et al., 2019; Masoumi et al., 2017; Sirui et al., 2022). Recent progress led to the development of nanoscale fibers used in wound treating systems. They are easily removed from the injury after their application (Obireddy & Lai, 2022; Mir et al., 2018; Alven et al., 2022; 23). Technique such as electrospinning is a straightforward method to produce synthetic polymer nanofiber, possessing several advantages such as lightweight, high surface-to-volume ratio, and porosity (23; 24; 25). This study aims to synthesize and characterize electrospun wound nanofiber, having antibacterial and pain relief properties for the skin. In the present study, gelatin (GL), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and chitosan (CS) nanofibers were produced and electrospun using different formulations, then ibuprofen and ciprofloxacin were loaded into obtained nanofibers. Nanofibers were characterized by morphological, mechanical, structural, and thermal properties. In addition, the antimicrobial properties of the biomaterials generated were examined to determine whether they could be applied as wound dressings.