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Carbohydrates
Published in Antonio Paesano, Handbook of Sustainable Polymers for Additive Manufacturing, 2022
Sugars are carbohydrates or saccharides found in the tissues of most plants that feature a sweet taste. Common sugar, or table sugar or granulated sugar, typically refers to sucrose, a crystalline molecule (C12H22O11) composed of two monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, joined by a covalent chemical bond (Figure 11.1). Honey and fruit are ample natural sources of a family of sugars called monosaccharides (Section 11.1). There are four types of sugar: fructose (fruit sugar), glucose (grape sugar, blood sugar), lactose (dairy sugar), and sucrose (table sugar). Sugarcane and sugar beet are rich in sucrose that is commercially extracted to be converted into refined sugar. Lactose is only found in milk, and is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants. Fructose, glucose, and maltose (another sugar) are derived from cornstarch. In 2019, the combined world production of sugarcane reached 1.95 billion tonnes (Shahbandeh 2021).
Urban Sources of Micropollutants: from the Catchment to the Lake
Published in Nathalie Chèvre, Andrew Barry, Florence Bonvin, Neil Graham, Jean-Luc Loizeau, Hans-Rudolf Pfeifer, Luca Rossi, Torsten Vennemann, Micropollutants in Large Lakes, 2018
Jonas Margot, Luca Rossi, D. A. Barry
Artificial sweeteners, like acesulfame, aspartame, cyclamate, neotame, neohesperidine dihydrochalcone (NHDC), saccharin and sucralose, are widely utilised (increasing over time) in food, beverages and toothpaste, where they act as sugar substitutes (Swithers, 2013). Artificial sweeteners are designed not to be metabolized in the human body (their goal is to provide a negligible energy source). Thus, except for aspartame, neotame and NHDC, which are mostly excreted in metabolite forms, 90 to 100% of all other sweeteners consumed are then released in urine and faeces. The estimated total load of sweeteners in sewers is around 10 to 60 mg d−1 capita−1 (Lange et al., 2012), which is in the same range as the total load of pharmaceuticals. Concentrations of acesulfame, cyclamate, saccharin and sucralose in raw municipal wastewaters are relatively high, with average concentrations of approximately 20-30 pg l−1 (Kokotou and Thomaidis, 2013; Lange et al., 2012).
Chemistry, food and the modern diet: what’s in food besides food?
Published in Richard J. Sundberg, The Chemical Century, 2017
The sugars are carbohydrates. The sweet taste of certain sugars seems to appeal to most people. Sweet-tasting sugars that are present in many foods include fructose (fruits), lactose (milk), maltose (grains), in addition to common table sugar sucrose (isolated from sugar cane or sugar beets). Historically, the most available source of a sweet taste was honey, which consists mainly of fructose (~38%), glucose (~31%), and maltose (~7%). Sugars are found in many processed foods. In addition to providing a sweet taste, they have other functions. They influence the texture of baked goods and also give the characteristic brown coating, such as in bread. They also act by retaining moisture and, at high concentration, have a preservative function. Sucrose, lactose, and maltose are disaccharides made by linking two individual carbohydrate molecules. Sucrose contains fructose and glucose, lactose contains galactose and glucose, while maltose contains two glucose molecules. Small polymers of glucose having the same subunits as maltose are called dextrins and are also present in many foods. They are prepared by partial hydrolysis of starch.
Toxicological and pharmacokinetic properties of sucralose-6-acetate and its parent sucralose: in vitro screening assays
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 2023
Susan S. Schiffman, Elizabeth H. Scholl, Terrence S. Furey, H. Troy Nagle
Sucralose is a chlorinated artificial sweeter that is used worldwide as a sugar substitute in thousands of food, beverage, and pharmaceutical products (Schiffman and Rother 2013). The sweet taste of sucralose was discovered at Queen Elizabeth College in London (Hough and Phadnis 1976) as part of a program to chemically modify sucrose (table sugar) for possible industrial applications. One structural modification was a chlorinated version of a novel disaccharide fructogalactose in which three hydroxyl groups were replaced by chlorine atoms with the chemical name 1,6-dichloro-1,6-dideoxy-β-D-fructofuranosyl-4-chloro-4-deoxy-α-D-galactopyranoside. This compound was originally called trichlorogalactosucrose (TGS) but was subsequently given the name sucralose. The sweetness potency of sucralose is approximately 385 to 650-fold greater than sucrose by weight depending on the specific application (DuBois et al. 1991; Schiffman, Sattely-Miller, and Bishay 2008). The manufacturing process involves the synthesis of sucralose-6-acetate in multiple steps from sucrose with subsequent deacylation to produce sucralose (Hao 2011; Mufti and Khan 1983; Wang et al. 2011). The chemical structures of sucralose-6-acetate and sucralose are presented in Figure 1. The sucralose-6-acetate intermediate generated during the manufacturing process is retained as an impurity in commercial sources of sucralose (Catani et al. 2006; OpAns 2021; United States Food and Drug Administration US FDA 2021; Werness 2021).
Intestinal Metabolism and Bioaccumulation of Sucralose In Adipose Tissue In The Rat
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2018
Volker Bornemann, Stephen C. Werness, Lauren Buslinger, Susan S. Schiffman
The artificial sweetener sucralose is used globally as a sugar substitute to sweeten foods, beverages, and medications. Sucralose is a polar organochlorine compound with the chemical formula 1,6-dichloro-1,6-dideoxy-β-D-fructo-furanosyl-4-chloro-4-deoxy-α-D-galactopyranoside (Figure 1). On a weight basis the sweetness potency of this chemical is approximately 600-fold greater than sucrose and thus contributes few or no calories to the products in which it is incorporated as an ingredient. Sucralose is currently used worldwide to sweeten thousands of low-calorie foods and beverages and has the dominant share of the United States market for artificial sweeteners and sugar substitutes (Lerner 2009).
Contextualising individual, household and community level factors associated with sugar-sweetened beverage intake and screen time in Soweto, South Africa
Published in Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 2022
Alessandra Prioreschi, Lisa J Ware, Catherine E Draper, Stephen Lye, Shane A Norris
SSB consumption is one indicator of dietary behavior, and is related to obesity risk, type-2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.7,10,16,17 SSB consumption was high in the majority of this sample, with the majority of participants reporting 1–3 sugar sweetened beverages per day. The WHO recommends that free sugar intake is restricted to less than 10% of total energy intake (preferably less than 5%),18 which equates to about 6 teaspoons of sugar per day. One average small SSB (330 ml) contains about 8–9 teaspoons of sugar. Therefore, even before consumption of any free sugar in foods, the large majority (96%) of this population were far exceeding these guidelines from beverages alone. In India, a nationally representative survey showed SSB consumption equated to 12% of total beverage consumption, equating to between 40 and 50 kilocalories per day.19 In 2010, global average SSB consumption was 0.58 servings per day, and consumption was highest upper- and lower- middle-income countries.20 A study conducted in Soweto investigating perceptions of SSBs and the recently implemented sugar tax showed that participants (aged 18–55 years, 51% female) reported constant and regular consumption of SSBs amounting to at least 1–2 bottles (330 ml), usually of Coca-Cola, per day.21 Participants reported that drinking these beverages was a “habit,” and that they drank them from “morning to evening,” and also that regular advertisements for these beverages and easy accessibility on every street corner influenced consumption.21 The density of SSB advertisements and availability from street vendors has been objectively verified using GPS mapping of Soweto.22