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Clinical Effects of Pollution
Published in William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel, Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 5, 2017
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel
Hyperarousal of the SNS causes a wide variety of symptoms including nausea, diarrhea, urinary hesitancy, sweating or coldness from microcirculation spasm, and anxiety or nervousness (Table 2.3). The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands accounts for some complaints of nervousness, muscle spasm, and anxiety and may also cause tremors, tics, and episodes of excess body heat or coldness. Restless leg syndrome (RLS), which is associated with peripheral neuropathy, also is a frequent complaint. According to NINDS, RLS is a neurological disorder characterized by “throbbing, pulling, creeping, or other unpleasant sensations in the legs and an uncontrollable, and sometimes overwhelming, urge to move them. The sensations range in severity from uncomfortable to irritating to painful.”213
Synapses
Published in Nassir H. Sabah, Neuromuscular Fundamentals, 2020
Biogenic amines, also referred to as monoamines because they have a single amino group (NH2, formally derived from ammonia, NH3), are derived from aromatic amino acids by the action of aromatic amino-acid-decarboxylase enzymes and have their amino group connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain (–CH2–CH2– or derivatives). The biogenic amines include: (i) the catecholamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, all derived from the essential amino acid tyrosine; (ii) serotonin, derived from the essential amino acid tryptophan; and (iii) histamine, derived from the essential amino acid histidine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain and also a major neuromodulator, discussed in Section 6.3.2. Norepinephrine, also referred to as noradrenalin, is the neurotransmitter of the postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic system. Its effect on the heart is to increase the heart rate as well as the force of contraction of the heart. It causes contraction of the smooth muscles of veins and arterioles, leading to vasoconstriction, except in the arterioles of skeletal muscle, which are not affected by norepinephrine. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter in the brain and also a major neuromodulator, discussed in Section 6.3.2. Epinephrine, also referred to as adrenalin, is derived from norepinephrine and is secreted as a hormone into the blood stream by the adrenal medulla. Epinephrine is vasodilatory on the arterioles of skeletal muscle in order to cater to the requirements of the “fight-or-flight” response. Its effect on the heart is similar to that of norepinephrine. In the brain, only a small number of neurons use epinephrine as a neurotransmitter. Serotonin, also known as 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is an important neurotransmitter in the brain and also a major neuromodulator, discussed in Section 6.3.2. Histamine is a neurotransmitter that is mainly concentrated in the hypothalamus, one of whose main functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system through its action on the pituitary gland.
Duloxetine hydrochloride enteric-coated pellets in capsules with delayed release: formulation and evaluation
Published in Smart Science, 2023
Ramya Krishna Nakkala, Balaji Maddiboyina, Shanmukha Chakravarthi Bolisetti, Harekrishna Roy
The term ‘depression’ is still commonly used to describe the condition. However, because it can also be used to describe psychological depression, more precise language is used in clinical and scientific settings. Major depression is a debilitating condition that affects a person’s relationships with family and friends, performance at work or school, sleep and dietary habits, and overall health. Monoamine neurotransmitters and their receptors are targets for many antidepressant medications, primarily norepinephrine and serotonin as their main targets [8]. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are the most commonly used antidepressant drugs, followed by SSRIs (e.g. fluoxetine and sertraline), heterocyclics (e.g. bupropion), monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, and a few other compounds like venlafaxine and duloxetine, which block the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine [9,10]. When it comes to balancing brain chemicals, Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor drugs (SNRIs) are very effective therapeutic agents and offer improved therapy safety [11]. Desvenlafaxine, Duloxetine, Milnacipram, and Venlafaxine are examples of SNRIs. Patients with anxiety, ADHD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or chronic neuropathic pain may benefit from these medications. In particular, they work on two brain neurotransmitters: serotonin and norepinephrine.
Blood pressure response simulator to vasopressor drug infusion (PressorSim)
Published in International Journal of Control, 2021
Guoyan Cao, Karolos M. Grigoriadis
Vasopressors (or pressors) are intravenous drugs that are administered in critical care to increase and regulate the blood pressure of hypotensive patients to restore perfusion and achieve hemodynamic stability (Herget-Rosenthal et al., 2008). Pressors, such as phenylephrine (PHP), epinephrine, ephedrine and norepinephrine, raise reduced blood pressure by acting as vasoconstrictors to increase total peripheral resistance. They are used for resuscitation of critical patients suffering from haemorrhage, spinal cord injury, septic shock, traumatic brain injury, severe burn or other critical hypotensive conditions (Hollenberg, 2007). Accurate administration of pressors is essential to achieve adequate cardiac output without drug overdosing that could lead to tachycardia and cardiac arrest. Resuscitation is achieved by seeking to regulate the patient’s mean arterial pressure (MAP) to target values by appropriate intravenous pressor infusion via volumetric bolus injections (Flancbaum et al., 1997). Pressor administration is significantly complicated by the fact that responsiveness to the drug is vastly varying from patient to patient (inter-patient variability), as well as, as within a given patient over time (intra-patent variability) due to varying human physiology (Ortiz & Garvin, 2001). Hence, the resuscitation of hypovolemic patients by medical personnel using pressors is a challenging process, especially in a critical care environment where dedicated medical attention is often sparse.
The benefits of a challenge approach on match day: Investigating cardiovascular reactivity in professional academy soccer players
Published in European Journal of Sport Science, 2020
J. G. Dixon, M. V. Jones, M. J. Turner
Challenge and threat states result from activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). In a challenge state it is proposed that the sympathetic adrenomedullary system and the resultant catecholamine output (epinephrine and norepinephrine) increases cardiac performance and decreases vascular resistance. A threat state is also marked by increased activation of the sympathetic adrenomedullary system but also accompanied by increased pituitary adreno-cortical activity, and increased levels of cortisol which inhibits epinephrine and norepinephrine release (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996; Dienstbier, 1989). Small, or no changes, in total peripheral resistance (TPR; sum of the resistance of all peripheral vasculature in the systemic circulation[dyn.s.cm-5]), and no change or a small increase in cardiac output (CO; litres of blood pumped from the heart per minute[l/min]), indicate a threat state, while a challenge state is inferred by a decrease in TPR and an increase from baseline in CO (Blascovich & Mendes, 2000).