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Micellar Nanoparticles for Lung Cancer Drug and Gene Delivery
Published in Munmaya K. Mishra, Applications of Encapsulation and Controlled Release, 2019
Mariana Magalhães, Francisco Veiga, Ana Figueiras, Ana Cláudia Santos
According to the American Cancer Society, lung tumors can be divided into three major subtypes: non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), small cell lung cancer (SCLC), and lung carcinoid tumor (American Cancer Society 2018). NSCLC is the most common type of lung cancer, with an incidence rate of 85%, being subdivided into adenocarcinoma, large-cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma. According to WHO, adenocarcinoma represents 40% of NSCLC cases, being subcategorized into adenocarcinoma in situ (or preinvasive lesion), minimally invasive adenocarcinoma, and invasive adenocarcinoma (Herbst et al., 2008; Ettinger et al. 2012; Inamura 2017). This division is made according to the level of invasiveness of lung adenocarcinoma and tumor size extent evaluation: adenocarcinoma in situ presents a diameter of 3 cm or less, while minimally invasive adenocarcinoma is characterized by an invasion size of 5 cm or less and a diameter of ≤3 cm (Inamura 2017). Moreover, invasive adenocarcinoma (bronchioloalveolar adenocarcinoma) has different patterns, such as lepidic growth adenocarcinoma, which happens when a proliferation of tumor cells exists along the surface of the alveolar walls but without vascular or stromal invasion (Iwata 2016; Inamura 2017). Additionally, squamous cell adenocarcinoma and large-cell carcinoma are less common types, with incidence rates around 25–30% and 10–15%, respectively (American Cancer Society 2018). SCLC is defined as very aggressive and is a less common type of lung cancer, affecting 10–15% of diagnosed patients. Relative to NSCLC, this type of lung cancer has a higher and faster growth rate and an earlier development of metastases (Kalemkerian et al. 2013). Pathologically, SCLC develops from a malignant tumor in epithelial cells, consisting of small cells with unclear cell membrane, minimal cytoplasm, and imperceptible nucleoli. The majority of SCLC cases originate in the lungs, although a small percentage can arise from extrapulmonary sites (Zakowski 2003; Kalemkerian et al. 2013). In this regard, neuroendocrine tumors include SCLC and lung carcinoid tumor, which affect 5% of diagnosed patients and have their origin in the neuroendocrine system (American Cancer Society 2018).
Theranostic approaches in nuclear medicine: current status and future prospects
Published in Expert Review of Medical Devices, 2020
Luca Filippi, Agostino Chiaravalloti, Orazio Schillaci, Roberto Cianni, Oreste Bagni
Neuroendocrine tumors (NET) are rare malignancies with an incidence of 5.86/100,000 per year and prevalence in the female sex [36,37]. NET arise from the neuroendocrine cells with a prevalent involvement of the gastrointestinal tract (62%-67%) and the lung (22%-27%). At presentation the 12–22% of the subjects exhibits metastases, the liver being the most frequent site of colonization. NET are usually classified into G1, G2, and G3 according to the mitotic index [37]. Another crucial dichotomization concerns the categorization of NET into ‘functioning’ and ‘non-functioning.’ ‘Funtioning’ NET produce a variety of hormones such as insulin, gastrin, glucagon, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), serotonin, somatostatin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which can cause a wide spectrum of symptoms [38]. Surgery is the treatment of choice but it is not always feasible due to the advanced stage of presentation.