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The Continuing Threat of Waterborne Pathogens
Published in Joseph A. Cotruvo, Gunther F. Craun, Nancy Hearne, Providing Safe Drinking Water in Small Systems, 2019
Debra E. Friedman-Huffman, Joan B. Rose
Microsporidia are obligate intracellular spore-forming protozoa that are capable of infecting both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Their role as an emerging pathogen in immunosuppressed hosts is being increasingly recognized. The prevalence of microsporidiosis in studies of patients with chronic diarrhea ranges from 7 to 50% worldwide [Bryan, 1995]. It is unclear whether this broad range represents geographic variation, differences in diagnostic capabilities or differences in risk factors for exposure to microsporidia. Typical symptoms of infection include chronic diarrhea, dehydration and significant weight loss (>10% body weight). Other symptoms include keratitis, conjunctivitis, hepatitis, peritonitis, myositis, central nervous system infection and renal disease. Treatments are available for certain species of microsporidia; however, some species remain resistant to therapy.
The global epidemiology of Microsporidia infection in birds: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Published in International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2023
Ali Taghipour, Sahar Ghodsian, Mahdi Jabbari, Vahid Rajabpour, Saeed Bahadory, Narges Malih, Kavous Solhjoo, Mohammad Zibaei, Amir Abdoli
Microsporidiosis is an emerging zoonotic threat caused by opportunistic unicellular eukaryotes called Microsporidia (Deplazes et al. 2000; Weiss 2001; Mathis et al. 2005). To date, more than 220 genera and 1,700 species of these eukaryotes have been documented in animals, and only a few genera and species of them can infect humans (Stentiford et al. 2016; Han and Weiss 2017). Based on the published literature, Enterocytozoon bieneusi (E. bieneusi) and the Encephalitozoon species (Enc. cuniculi, Enc. intestinalis, and Enc. hellem) are the most common species of Microsporidia reported from humans and a wide range of animals (Mathis et al. 2005; Henriques-Gil et al. 2010; Ghoyounchi et al. 2019). In the life cycle of Microsporidia, spore-resistant forms are the infective stage and are shed in large numbers via fecal, sputum, or urine of infected hosts into the environment (Schottelius et al. 2000; Southern et al. 2007; Ghoyounchi et al. 2019). In this regard, spores excreted from infected humans and animals by contaminated food, water, and even dust particles may significantly increase the likelihood of transmission (Rinder 2004). Furthermore, inhalation is a potential route of infection with importance for Encephalitozoon spp. infecting lung tissue (Franzen and Müller 1999; Rinder 2004; Decraene et al. 2012). The effects of microsporidiosis in humans may differ based on the species of Microsporidia and host immune system conditions (Didier and Weiss 2006). In immunocompetent individuals, microsporidiosis is often asymptomatic or has little clinical manifestations with self-limiting diarrhea, malabsorption, and wasting sequels (Wichro et al. 2005; Sak et al. 2011). In contrast, in immunocompromised patients, such as those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, the infection depending on the Microsporidia species could be systemic and involve enteric and non-enteric (i.e. lung, eyes, muscles, and kidney) diseases, which may even lead to death (Weber et al. 1993; Hassan et al. 2018). Based on previous studies, disseminated microsporidiosis due to Enc. hellem leads to pulmonary colonization, microhematuria, and mild conjunctivitis in patients with AIDS (Weber et al. 1993; Hassan et al. 2018). The “One-Health” approach implies that the health and well-being of humans are connected to the health of animals and the environment (Mazet et al. 2009). Hence, domestic and wild birds may play a major role in the transmission dynamics of Microsporidia spores due to their close contact with humans and their dispersion in different environments. Considering the public health concerns relating to birds as a potential reservoir of human-infected Microsporidia, a summary of data on the global status of Microsporidia infection in birds is important for public health officials, medical practitioners, and veterinarians. So, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the global status and genetic diversity of Microsporidia infection in different birds.