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Designing for Lower Torso and Leg Anatomy
Published in Karen L. LaBat, Karen S. Ryan, Human Body, 2019
Menstruation occurs approximately monthly from puberty to menopause in non-pregnant females. Due to the periodic nature of the menstrual cycle, menstruation is often referred to as a “period.” Individual variations occur in (a) the interval between periods, (b) the duration of the menstrual period, and (c) the volume of menstrual flow. Use of oral, patch, or vaginal ring contraceptives can decrease the duration and volume of menstrual flow. Documenting the duration of menstrual flow is straightforward—ask women how long they bleed. Measuring menstrual flow volume is more difficult. Callard, Litofsky, and DeMerre (1966) collected menstrual blood in intravaginal cups which study participants removed in the research lab. They reported the heaviest flow on days 1 and 2, with a range of average flow (per woman) from 0.60 to 2.19 ml/hr (0.02 to 0.07 oz/hr). Toxqui, Pérez-Granados, Blanco-Rojo, Wright, and Vaquero (2014) administered a questionnaire to assess numbers of MMPs women used per menstrual period. They used a formula to combine product numbers with manufacturers’ reported product absorbency data to calculate total menstrual blood loss. They noted correlations between the calculated menstrual blood loss and blood tests which reflect blood loss in general. Munro (2012) reported normal values including: (a) menstrual periods lasting from 4.5 to 8 days and (b) total menstrual blood loss per woman per menstrual period ranging from 5 to 80 ml (0.17 to 2.7 oz) (p. 231).
The psychological benifits of physical exercise for women: improving employee quality of life
Published in John Kerr, Amanda Griffiths, Tom Cox, Workplace Health, Employee Fitness and Exercise, 2020
Precilla Y.L. Choi, Nanette Mutrie
The climacteric may be denned as a natural developmental stage in women's lives during which there are hormonal changes associated with decreasing ovarian function along with personal and social changes associated with perceptions of women's roles in the family and society. This definition of the climacteric implies a biopsychosocial perspective (Greene, 1980). The climacteric varies in onset from 41 to 59 years, but most commonly occurs around 51 years of age (Golub, 1992). During these years, menopause occurs (i.e. the gradual cessation of menstruation). Further classification of this stage is offered by Hunter and Whitehead (1989) as follows: premenopausal: regular menstruation;perimenopausal: irregular menstruation during the previous months;postmenopausal: no menstruation during the previous 12 months. The psychosocial challenges of these transitional years include coming to terms with the end of reproductive years, changing roles in the family as children mature and leave home, potential increase in health problems of parents, self and partner, opportunities for dedicating more time to career and/or self-development. For working women there may be time available at this point of their life to change career, take on more responsibilities, or move from part-time to full-time work. Many women report that the climacteric is a positive time of change and an opportunity to experience more independence (Musgrave and Menell, 1980). However, some women may experience a certain amount of physical and psychological distress during the climacteric. Vasomotor symptoms such as nocturnal sweating and hot flushes are the most commonly reported physical symptoms and are related to the hormonal changes (Hunter et at., 1986). There is also evidence of non-clinical psychological symptoms with loss of self-confidence, depression and anxiety being the most frequently reported (Barlow et al., 1989; Hunter and Whitehead, 1989). There appear to be equivocal findings regarding sexual function. Greene (1988) has suggested that loss of self-esteem is the most general climacteric symptom and several factors combine to reduce a woman's sense of self-esteem during the climacteric; these factors are low socio-economic status, negative attitude towards the menopause and its consequences, limited social network and poor marital relationships, and stressful life events.
The effect of the menstrual cycle on the sense of touch, grip strength and manual dexterity of dental students
Published in International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 2022
Emir İbrahim Işik, Koray Soygun, Öykü Ceren Kahraman, Elif Figen Koçak
During the active reproductive years, there are rhythmic changes that are repeated every month in females. These changes encompass the amount of female hormones expressed and the events occurring in the sex organs with the effect of this. These changes are known as menstruation [13]. For females to maintain normal reproductive functions, there are expected to be some changes that will be seen regularly every month in the whole organism and especially in the reproductive organs, and this will continue from menarche to menopause. All of these changes together are known as the menstrual cycle. The first day of the cycle is the first day of menstruation. A normal cycle occurs at 28-day intervals, although regular cycles varying between 21 and 35 days are seen in some women. The most irregular menstrual cycles are seen immediately after menarche and before menopause. In normal healthy women, menstruation lasts for 3–7 days, and menstruation is not accepted as normal if <2 or >7 days [14].
Smiley: Designing Smile Recognition Smart Mirror for Premenstrual Syndrome
Published in International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 2023
Menstruation refers to physiological bleeding through the uterine mucosa at regular intervals due to the menstrual action of the neurohormonal system. The period from the first day of menstruation to the day before the beginning of the next menstruation is called the menstrual cycle. One menstrual cycle is about 28 days (Yonkers et al., 2008). The menstrual cycle can be divided into four phases: the menstrual phase, the follicular phase, the ovulating phase, and the luteal phase.
Iron status in athletic females, a shift in perspective on an old paradigm
Published in Journal of Sports Sciences, 2021
Claire E. Badenhorst, Kazushige Goto, Wendy J. O’Brien, Stacy Sims
Iron is considered an essential mineral for athletic performance, supporting the processes of oxygen delivery and energy production at a cellular level (Beard, 2001). Symptoms of iron deficiency include lethargy, fatigue, negative mood, and in cases of iron deficiency anaemia, a reduced work capacity (Pasricha et al., 2010; Sim et al., 2019). This cumulative list of symptoms is likely to impact an athlete’s training and competitive performances (Sim et al., 2019). As such, researchers in sport physiology and medicine frequently suggest that iron status in athletes be routinely measured with appropriate actions taken to correct deficiencies if, and when, required (Sim et al., 2019). Female athletes are encouraged to undergo quarterly or biannual iron screenings (dependent of history of iron deficiency) due to higher incidence rates of iron deficiency which, in previous and current literature has largely been attributed to increased iron loss through menses (Bruinvels et al., 2016; Mayer et al., 2019; Pedlar et al., 2018). Of note, female athletes presenting with menorrhagia may have an exacerbated risk of iron deficiency as compared to eumenorrheic females with regular or normal blood loss (Bruinvels et al., 2016; Clancy et al., 2006). Research has demonstrated declines in iron status in female athletes over prolonged training periods (Auersperger et al., 2013; Mielgo-Ayuso et al., 2018), with changes being the result of increased exercise-induced iron loss. Research on the changes in iron status within the menstrual cycle of female athletes is limited; therefore, researchers with an interest in female athletes’ health may have to draw conclusions from studies in non-athletic populations. Within the non-athletic populations there is variability in the results for the change in iron status within the menstrual cycle, with two studies demonstrating a change in iron status (Heath et al., 2001; Kim et al., 1993), while others report no change at all (Belza et al., 2005; Puolakka, 1980). However, as will be discussed throughout this review, there is evidence from previous research to suggest that in healthy eumenorrheic females, changes in iron status will likely occur throughout the menstrual cycle and this should be a consideration for future research in female athletes. It should be noted that exercise-associated menstrual disturbances are well documented in female athlete health research, with regular menstruation considered a marker of endocrine and metabolic health. Thus, the question is raised as to how a marker of female athletic health may negatively impact an essential mineral required to maintain athletic performance and physiological processes such as energy metabolism and immune function. This article aims to review and critique the current understanding of iron regulation in females and proposes and challenges the paradigm that menstrual blood loss increases the risk of iron deficiency.