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Salmonids (Salmonidae)
Published in John A Plumb, Health Maintenance Of Cultured Fishes, 1994
Vaccination of trout and salmon for BCWD is under investigation and has shown some promising results. Holt186 demonstrated successful vaccination by immersion and injection of a formalin-killed bacterin of F. psychrophilus. Injection, with Freund’s adjuvant, produced complete protection against challenge compared to 43% mortality in nonvaccinated controls. Immersion resulted in only 11% improved survival. Obach and Laurencin210 reported that 40-day-old posthatch rainbow trout were not protected by immersion vaccination with a heat-inactivated preparation of F. psychrophilus. However, when immersion vaccination was applied to 50-day-old posthatch or older fish, significant protection was achieved. Vaccination of 2.2-g fish (90-day-old posthatch) by intraperitoneal injection elicited a very high degree of protection. They concluded that bath vaccination may prove practical and economical, but vaccination is perceived as beneficial only to 2-month-old to yearling fish, rather than to the fry.
Preparation and characterization of polyoxyethylene dehydrated mannitol mono oleate as hydrophilic emulsifier potentially used in w/o/w type adjuvants
Published in Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2021
Mengmeng Zhou, Yantao Li, Xiaoqi Chen, Haijun Zhou, Shulan Yang, Xiongwei Qu
Adjuvants that would enhance immune responses to vaccination were proposed as early as 1925 and have been widely used in animal health vaccines for decades.[11,12] In 1930, Jules Freund developed Freund’s adjuvant, a water-in-mineral oil (w/o) formulation showing improved immune responses against FMD in swine.[13–21] However, Freund’s adjuvant is known for causing significant side effects, such as inflammatory or toxic reactions, granulomas at the site of injection, or systemic reactions, including fever.[22]
Polymer-based nano-therapies to combat COVID-19 related respiratory injury: progress, prospects, and challenges
Published in Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 2021
Emulsion-based adjuvants like Freund’s adjuvant and montanide ISA51 are easy to develop at comparatively very low cost among different adjuvants available for vaccination. These adjuvants can be made as water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion with dispersed antigenic media and continuous oily phases.[168] These adjuvants based on emulsion have the advantages of improving the vaccine’s nontoxicity and securing long-term protective immunity. Nevertheless, these adjuvants’ preparation time, difficulties during injection by syringe, and localized toxicities at the injection sites are some common problems with these emulsions.[169] Synthetic low molecular weight block polymer has been proposed as a better replacement to reduce the toxicity of surfactants used during the manufacturing of such adjuvants. TiterMax is an ideal example of this kind of modified adjuvant for vaccination. TiterMax is a squalene-based W/O emulsion containing polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylene-polyoxyethylene (POE-POP-POE) polymer.[170] To overcome the mild toxicity and poor degradability of TiterMax, recently, Huang et al. have reported multiphase emulsion based on the hydrophilic polymeric emulsifiers PEG-b-PLA, PEG-b-PCL, and PEG-b-PLACL in the antigen phase of oily ISA51-adjuvant-based vaccines.[171] This hydrophilic polymer-stabilized ISA51 emulsion increase fluidity and conceptually diminish local reactions. The excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility of these modified adjuvants make them promising candidates for SARS-CoV-2 vaccine delivery applications. Huan et al. recently studied the effect of CoVaccine HTTM (W/O emulsion type adjuvant) against the SARS-CoV-2 spike S1 protein in mice.[172] The CoVaccine HTTM has already proven its efficacy in Malaria, Zika, Ebola, and other antiviral vaccine formulations.[173] This adjuvant is composed of negatively charged sucrose fatty acid sulfate ester and plant-derived squalene.[174] In that study, they compared the potency and efficacy of CoVaccine HTTM against two gold standard adjuvants (i.e. alum and Th2 adjuvant). They found that the CoVaccine HTTM induced cell-mediated immune responses, antigen-specific antibody titers and virus-neutralizing antibody titers significantly compared to alum adjuvant. High potency, efficacy, biodegradability, and biocompatibility are key features in these modified adjuvants that make them attractive for SARS-CoV-2 vaccine delivery applications.[164]