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Tissue Structure and Function
Published in Joseph W. Freeman, Debabrata Banerjee, Building Tissues, 2018
Joseph W. Freeman, Debabrata Banerjee
The brainstem is the lower extension of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. It is made up of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. It transfers signals back and forth between various parts of the body and the cerebral cortex. Eye movement and facial motor control are coordinated in the midbrain, whereas bladder control, eye movement, respiration, hearing, and balance are coordinated by the pons.3,20 The medulla oblongata controls some reflexes, swallowing, respiration, and the cardiovascular system (blood pressure and heart beats).3,20 The thalamus aids in alertness and sleep patterns by coordinating motor and sensory signals traveling to the cerebral cortex.
Human physiology, hazards and health risks
Published in Stephen Battersby, Clay's Handbook of Environmental Health, 2016
David J. Baker, Naima Bradley, Alec Dobney, Virginia Murray, Jill R. Meara, John O’Hagan, Neil P. McColl, Caryn L. Cox
The midbrain, pons and medulla together form the brainstem which is literally the stalk of the brain through which all nerve fibres that relay signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum and spinal cord pass. Running through the core of the brainstem is the reticular formation, which is a network of nerve cells and is one part of the brain absolutely essential to life.
Nanocarriers for Brain Targeting
Published in Raj K. Keservani, Anil K. Sharma, Rajesh K. Kesharwani, Nanocarriers for Brain Targeting, 2019
B. A. Aderibigbe, I. A. Aderibigbe, A. P. I. Popoola
The central nervous system is composed of the spinal cord and the brain (Fig. 4.1) (Rughani, 2015). The brain is composed of the cerebrum, the brainstem, and the cerebellum (Rughani, 2015). At the lower part of the brain is the brainstem and the cerebellum lies posterior to the brainstem. The brainstem extends from the cervical spinal cord to the diencephalon of the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain (Rughani, 2015). The cerebrum is responsible for the decisions, behavior, perception, vision, emotion, speech, and memory (Anatomy of the brain). The brainstem is responsible for involuntary actions, such as blood pressure, digestion, hormone regulation, breathing, heartbeat, etc. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination, movement, and balance (Anatomy of the Brain). The brain is made of two types of nerves, namely, neuron and glia cells (Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System). The neurons are of varied shapes and sizes. They are composed of axon, cell body, and dendrites. They transmit information via signals that are chemical and electrical across a tiny gap known as a synapse. The dendrites act as antennae by receiving messages from the nerve cells that are transmitted to the cell body, which then accesses the message to determine its suitability for further transmission (Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System). Important messages are transmitted to the end of the axon, which contains neurotransmitters that open into the synapse. Glia provides the neurons with structural support, protection, and nourishment (Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System). Some of the glia cells are oligodendroglia, astroglia, ependymal, and microglia that act as an insulator to the neurons, transport nutrients to the neurons, secrete cerebrospinal fluid, digest dead neurons, respectively (Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System).
Advanced 4D-bioprinting technologies for brain tissue modeling and study
Published in International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials, 2019
Timothy J. Esworthy, Shida Miao, Se-Jun Lee, Xuan Zhou, Haitao Cui, Yi Y. Zuo, Lijie Grace Zhang
The brain is anatomically partitioned into four interconnected tissue subsystems and is composed of an estimated 86 billion neurons, and some 85 billion non-neuronal cells [46,47]. In brief, the general tissue subsystems of the brain include the cerebrum (which is divided into two cerebral hemispheres), the brainstem, the diencephalon, and the cerebellum [46]. The brainstem is comprised of 3 main parts: (i) the midbrain (mesencephalon), which is associated with motor functioning; (ii) the pons, which encompasses several cranial nerve nuclei and serves as an important conduit for bidirectional neural tracts; and (iii) the medulla, which largely functions to regulate vital processes such as heart contraction and breathing [46,48]. The cerebellum or ‘little-brain’ is located adjacent to the brainstem in the posterior cranial fossa. Its distinctive exterior is composed of many fine grooves of undulating tissue known as folia, and as a whole, is largely associated with motor control and muscle memory [46,48]. The forebrain is composed of both the cerebrum and the diencephalon. The diencephalon houses both the thalamus, which serves as a cortical relay, and the hypothalamus, which largely works to modulate autonomic functions such as the regulation of body temperature [46,48]. The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain and is divided into two, non-symmetrical hemispheres which entail the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and amygdala [46,48–50].
Coup-contrecoup brain injury: fluid–structure interaction simulations
Published in International Journal of Crashworthiness, 2020
The brain can be structurally divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain–stem. The cerebrum is divided into two roughly equal hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum and a shared ventricular system. The brainstem is further divided into the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills a system of cavities at the center of the brain, known as ventricles, and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord (Figure 2). The CSF cushions the brain within the skull and serves as a shock absorber for the central nervous system [4].