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Stress and the Dental Situation
Published in Eli Ilana, Oral Psychophysiology, 2020
Operant behaviors include those which have an effect on one’s environment (walking, crying, etc.) and are modified or maintained by the consequences that follow them. Operant or instrumental conditioning is a learning situation whereby certain events or consequences are made conditional on specified behaviors.36 Positive and negative reinforcement, biofeedback, extinction, and punishment are methods of operant conditioning (see also Chapter 10).
Motor Aspects of Lateralization
Published in Robert Miller, Axonal Conduction Time and Human Cerebral Laterality, 2019
If learning is to be interpreted as a change of selected synapses, there is one very important reason why the Hebbian rule cannot underlie instrumental learning. In Hebbian synaptic change all the conditions needed for operation of the rule are microscopic, local to the neurone whose synapses are to be changed. In instrumental conditioning there is an essential step at the macroscopic level, the level of behaviour of the whole organism, and the assessment by the brain as to whether that behaviour (as a whole) does or does not fulfil motivational or intentional requirements*.
Varieties of learning and developmental theories of memory
Published in Romain Meeusen, Sabine Schaefer, Phillip Tomporowski, Richard Bailey, Physical Activity and Educational Achievement, 2017
Phillip Tomporowski, Daniel M. Pendleton, Bryan A. McCullick
Instrumental conditioning, sometimes referred to as operant learning, focuses on the association between behaviours and the results of those actions on the environment. Unlike classical conditioning, in which behaviours are reflexively elicited, instrumental conditioning prompts behaviours that are emitted. Behavioural actions in operant learning ‘operate’ on the environment; the consequences of actions reinforce, or strengthen, the likelihood that the frequency of behaviours will occur. Instrumental conditioning involves the recognition of an environmental condition that provides a signal for behaviour which, if performed, leads to a reinforcer. B. F. Skinner and his colleagues conducted many studies with rats and pigeons under controlled laboratory conditions demonstrating that environmental cues (e.g. a light) which signalled to an animal that a response, such as a lever press, would lead to food reward came to control lever-pressing behaviours (Skinner, 1938, 1990). Similarly, the sight of a red light at a traffic intersection sets the conditions for a driver to remove her foot from the gas pedal and place it on the brake pedal; not reflexively, but because of possible negative consequences of failing to stop at the intersection.
Brain injury, behaviour support, and family involvement: putting the pieces together and looking forward
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2020
Alinka Fisher, Michelle Bellon, Sharon Lawn, Sheila Lennon
In particular, the aforementioned reviews have highlighted the success of management approaches that are based on ABA. In simple terms, ABA refers to the application of behavioural principles from learning theory (i.e., classical [or respondent] conditioning and operant [or instrumental] conditioning) that asserts behaviour as operating on the environment and maintained by its consequences [114]. Put simply, classical conditioning refers to reflexive (unlearned) behaviours, whereas operant conditioning focuses on learned or voluntary behaviours [115]. The principles of classical conditioning has therefore informed an operant model for analysing behaviour to help identify the function it serves for the individual, and how environmental factors contribute to the development and maintenance of the behaviour [102,113]; thus, ABA interventions are based on procedures emphasising (but not restricted to) the management of BOC by manipulating antecedents (events prior to the occurrence of problem behaviour) or consequences (the response to the behaviour) [94,100].
Neural substrates of cognitive emotion regulation: a brief review
Published in Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2018
Modulating functions of cortical networks have been indicated in classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning paradigms [29]. The findings were in general consistent that reversal of stimulus-reward associations [30], instrumental avoidance of aversive experiences, and classical conditioning of fear responses have been found to rely on the similar the neural pathway linking nucleus accumbens, ventral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and anterior cingulate (ACC). What is common to these learning mechanisms is that, as the emotional value of a stimulus is modified, the organism is expected to replace the existing, more automatic responses so as to match the newly acquired stimulus value. Regulation of emotional responses in this way has been implicated as bottom-up appraisal processes, which are further explained below.
Clinical Results Using Virtual Reality
Published in Journal of Technology in Human Services, 2019
Albert Rizzo, Sebastian Thomas Koenig, Thomas B. Talbot
The use of VR to address psychiatric conditions began in the mid-nineties with its use as a tool to deliver prolonged exposure (PE) therapy targeting anxiety disorders, primarily for specific phobias (e.g., heights, flying, spiders, enclosed spaces). PE is a form of individual psychotherapy based on the Foa and Kozak (Foa & Kozak, 1986) emotional processing theory, which posits that phobic disorders and PTSD involve pathological fear structures that are activated when information represented in the structures is encountered. Emotional processing theory purports that fear memories include information about stimuli, responses, and meaning (Foa, Steketee, & Rothbaum, 1989; Foa & Kozak, 1986) and that fear structures are composed of harmless stimuli that have been associated with danger and are reflected in the belief that the world is a dangerous place. This belief then manifests itself in cognitive and behavioral avoidance strategies that limit exposure to potentially corrective information that could be incorporated into and alter the fear structure. As escape and avoidance from feared situations are intrinsically rewarding (albeit, temporarily), phobic disorders can perpetuate without treatment. Consequently, several theorists have proposed that conditioning processes are involved in the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders. These theorists invoke Mowrer’s (Mowrer, 1960) two-factor theory, which posits that both Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning are involved in the acquisition of fear and avoidance behavior. Successful treatment requires emotional processing of the fear structures in order to modify their pathological elements so that the stimuli no longer invoke fear.