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Aflatoxins
Published in Dongyou Liu, Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
María J. Andrade, Elena Bermúdez, Alicia Rodríguez, Mar Rodríguez, Juan J. Córdoba
Regarding AFM1 and AFM2, a biosynthetic relationship among AFB1 and AFM1 and AFB2 and AFM2 seems to exist.39 Therefore, the transformations of dihydrosterigmatocystin to sterigmatocystin, AFB2 to AFB1, and AFM2 to AFM1 are catalyzed by the same enzyme.
Organic Chemicals
Published in William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel, Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 4, 2017
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel
There are also carcinogens produced in nature, either by microorganisms or by plants. Those originating from the microorganisms are aflatoxins, sterigmatocystin, luteoskyrin, islanditoxin, griseofulvin, actinomycins, mitomycin C, adriamycin, daunomycin, elaiomycin, ethionine, azaserine, nitrosonornicotine, and streptozotocin, some of which have been observed to trigger chemical sensitivity. Carcinogens produced by plants are tobacco, betel nut, cycavin, pyrrolizidine (senecio), coltsfoot, bracken fern, mushroom toxins, safrole, β-asarone (calamus oil), thiourea, goitrogens (resorcinol), and phorbol esters. Most of these substances can also trigger chemical sensitivity.
Fungal Lipids
Published in Rajendra Prasad, Mahmoud A. Ghannoum, Lipids of Pathogenic Fungi, 2017
The formation of lipid drops is a common feature of vegetative growth of saprophytic fungi and generally increases greatly during the formation of resting and reproductive structures. Aspergillus foetidus and Fusarium oxysporum accumulated fatty inclusions, when growing on sucrose, tridecane and emulsol as carbon sources, maximum amounts being found after 48 h in the former and 72 h in the latter.21 Both neutral lipid content and cephalosporin C production by Paecilomyces persicinus were maximal after 72 h of incubation, at which stage the polar lipid fraction was relatively low.22 Similarly, the lipid content of A. versicolor decreased when the production of sterigmatocystin began.23 Although most of this lipid is cytoplasmic in location, significant amounts have been recorded from cell walls.11 Walls of both yeast and mycelial forms of Blastomyces dermatidis contained relatively high proportions of saturated fatty acids of carbon chain lengths 20, 22, and 24.24 Lipid droplets within resting sporangia of the potato wart pathogen Synchytrium endobioticum, with palmitic, oleic and nonadecanoic acids as major fatty acids, differed in composition from the sporangium wall, where the major fatty acids, stearic, oleic, arachidic (C20:0) and arachidonic (C20:4) acids, were accompanied by significant amounts of wax esters with branched chains.25
Biosensors for the detection of mycotoxins
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Akansha Shrivastava, Rakesh Kumar Sharma
A successful approach was carried out for the detection of sterigmatocystin in corn samples by implementing soybean peroxidase enzyme, as a biological element. It showed an effective LOD of about 2.3 × 10–9 mol L–1. Similarly, the detection of ZEN in a corn-based food was carried out by immobilizing monoclonal antibody (mAb), which had a LOD of about 1.5 pg mL–1. An innovative device with the capability to detect ochratoxin A was developed by simultaneous amperometric and luminescent evaluation. This device explored the use of synthetic peptide NFO4 with a high binding affinity to ochratoxin A. This microfabricated cell-on-a-chip transducer detected the mycotoxin concentration in the range of 1–10 µg L–1. Screen-printed electrodes have also been used for the detection of mycotoxins. These electrodes were associated with multichannel electrochemical systems for the detection of multi-aflatoxins mainly AFB1 in olive oil. Another outstanding alternative is the use of disposable printed electrodes to reduce the cost and large-scale production (Santana Oliveira et al. 2019). The portable instrumentation, high sensitivity, and selectivity make them a better advantage over other available biosensor. However, one limitation is that they require regeneration between measurements (Agriopoulou et al. 2020).
Biomonitoring of mycotoxin exposure using urinary biomarker approaches: a review
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2021
Larissa Tuanny Franco, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah, Sarah Hwa In Lee, Carlos Augusto Fernandes Oliveira
The development of LC-MS/MS analytical techniques using a multi-mycotoxin biomarker approach brought important contributions in exposure assessment, such as offering more realistic information (since a mixture of mycotoxins is expected to occur under field conditions). Also, the potential usages of simultaneous analysis of mycotoxins in risk assessment due to possible interaction effects attracted notable attention. In this regard, as one of the primary studies regarding the multi-mycotoxin approach in urine, Solfrizzo et al. (2011), analyzed α- and β-ZEL, FB1, AFM1, DOM-1, DON, and OTA with the aid of a sample clean-up by multi-antibody immunoaffinity columns (IAC) in addition to application of solid phase extraction (SPE) columns. Later, a multi-biomarker technique based on a ‘dilute-and-shoot’ approach (no sample preparation other than centrifugation and dilution), for 15 mycotoxins, including FB1, AFM1, OTA, DON, DON-3-GlcA, DOM-1, ZEA, and α- and β-ZEL was introduced by Warth et al. (2012). However, the higher detection limits compared with clean-up based methods was one of the main disadvantages. Furthermore, some studies proposed analytical methods for other mycotoxins that are not officially regulated in food products, such as Enniatins (EN), Beauvericin (BEA), Nivalenol (NIV), Citrinin (CIT), Alternariol (AOH), Fusarenon X (FUS-X), Diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), Neosolaniol (NEO), and Sterigmatocystin (STER) (Heyndrickx et al.2015; Huybrechts et al.2015; Sarkanj et al.2018).
Sterigmatocystin-induced DNA damage triggers cell-cycle arrest via MAPK in human neuroblastoma cells
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2021
Veronica Zingales, Mónica Fernández-Franzón, Maria-José Ruiz
Sterigmatocystin (STE) is a toxic secondary fungal metabolite mainly produced by Aspergillus versicolor and A. nidulans fungi. The STE producing fungi have been frequently isolated from several foodstuffs, with a consequent strong economic impact for the biotechnological, agricultural and food industries. However, in literature only limited information is available on the presence of STE in food and feed (Zingales et al. 2020c). Due to the limited STE occurrence data, STE is not included in the European Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1881/2006, which established maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs to ensure animal and public health, as well as agricultural productivity (Commission Regulation 2006). However, efforts are focused on this mycotoxin to establish a better risk assessment. In fact, epidemiological evidence highlighted the existence of associations between STE exposure and the risk of cancer development. A large number of studies performed in China revealed that STE may be a putative etiological factor for gastric carcinoma, as suggested by the strong positive correlations existing between high levels of STE contamination in foodstuffs and a higher incidence of gastric cancer (Lou et al. 1995; Zhang X et al. 2003; Tian and Liu 2004; Hutanasu et al. 2011). Furthermore, STE has been shown to be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in animal models. Accordingly, in light of the animal studies performed and of the cases of human cancer analyzed as far, STE has been classified in the group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 1987; Pitt et al. 2012).