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Cannabis
Published in Ilana B. Crome, Richard Williams, Roger Bloor, Xenofon Sgouros, Substance Misuse and Young People, 2019
Of the three species of cannabis, cannabis sativa was the first to be introduced around the globe probably because of its strong fibres and edible seeds (Stafford and Bigwood, 1992). Cannabis indica is a shorter plant that contains the greatest amount of cannabis resin and has the strongest psychotropic effect. There is a third relatively rare species, cannabis ruderalis, which does not have significant psychotropic effect, or other non-pharmacological uses.
Cannabis, the Plant, and Its History With Humankind
Published in Jonathan C. Beazley, Stephanie Field, Cannabis on Campus, 2018
Jonathan C. Beazley, Stephanie Field
Cannabis, if anything, is versatile. The utility of the plant and its ability to adapt to a variety of environments has historically been a major part of its impact on humankind. Cannabis, for much of its 10,000-year history with humans has been cultivated mainly for the usefulness of its stalk. Hemp is the name used most commonly to differentiate this variety from the psychoactive herb we now refer to as marijuana. The plant was given its scientific name, cannabis sativa, by Carl Linnaeus, the father of taxonomy, in the mid-eighteenth century. The latter name means “cultivated.”2Sativa is characterized by slender leaves and can reach heights of over 20 feet, and it may have been these great, fibrous stalks that first attracted humans. Thirty years later, the French naturalist John-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that the plant found in Europe was different from the one found in warmer climates such as India and that they were actually two separate varieties. He reclassified them accordingly, giving the name cannabis indica to the variety from those sunnier climates, after the country where it was so prevalent. Indica is much shorter and bushier with broader leaves than the more trim and vertical sativa. A century and a half later, a third possible variety named cannabis ruderalis, was found in Russia. Scrawny compared to the others, Ruderalis lacks the psychoactive properties of its siblings.3 More recently, there has been a growing majority of cannabis experts who agree that all three are but variants of sativa.4
Some psychobiological implications of cannabis use
Published in Philip N. Murphy, The Routledge International Handbook of Psychobiology, 2018
Three main varieties of plant have been identified within the genus ‘cannabis’, these being Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. Disagreement exists regarding whether or not these varieties constitute different taxonomic categories or a single species (de Meijer, 2014; Gloss, 2015; Hilig & Mahlberg, 2004). ‘Cannabis’ is the name given to the recreationally used drug derived from the buds and leaves of the cannabis plant. In some countries, notably the United States, the name ‘marijuana’ is often used for this drug, rather than cannabis (NIDA, 2016). Recreational self-administration principally takes the form of smoke inhalation, although oral administration in the form of ‘cakes’ or ‘tea’ is also known (Hazekamp & Pappas, 2014; Heustis & Smith, 2014). If the grass-like substance harvested from the plant is sieved into a powder and then compressed and heated, a solid block is formed which is referred to as cannabis resin, which is then self-administered through smoke inhalation (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, 2008; NIDA, 2016). The inhalation of vapour from the heating of an oil extract from the leaves of the cannabis plant, sometimes referred to as dabbing, has developed as a means of self-administration in recent years, partly because the process of producing the oil leads to a relatively potent form of cannabis (Krauss et al., 2015; Loflin & Earleywine, 2014). The commonly self-reported desired effects of cannabis consumption include increased feelings of relaxation, an elevated mood level, and enhancements in sensory perception (Grinspoon et al., 2005; Winstock et al., 2010). The clinical administration of cannabis-based medications may include oral ingestion, sublingual, rectal, dermal, eye drops, and intravenous routes (Heustis & Smith, 2014; Scuderi et al., 2009).
Medical cannabis and cannabinoids in rheumatology: where are we now?
Published in Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, 2019
Piercarlo Sarzi-Puttini, Alberto Batticciotto, Fabiola Atzeni, Laura Bazzichi, Manuela Di Franco, Fausto Salaffi, Daniela Marotto, Angela Ceribelli, Jacob N Ablin, Winfred Hauser
The cannabis plant contains over 400 naturally occurring chemicals and approximately 100 phytocannabinoids (Figure 3) [27–29]. Cannabis is the root word and the scientific plant genus from which all other names derive. There are 3 subspecies of cannabis, including Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. Cannabis sativa [28] is the most widely cultivated plant for both commercial and pharmaceutical use. The best known among phytocannabinoids are Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), which are already being used in medicine: Δ9-THC is considered to be the main psychoactive component of C. sativa because of its high affinity with and partially agonistic effect on CBr1, whereas CBD is the main non-psychoactive component and is characterized by a relatively low affinity for cannabinoid receptors [29]. CBD acts as a partial antagonist of CBr1 and a weak inverse agonist of CBr2, although it can indirectly activate both by increasing AEA and 2-AG levels. It is thought that THC and CBD have synergistic effects in which other phytocannabinoids may participate, and this has given rise to the theory of an ‘entourage effect’ that increases the benefits of cannabis over synthetic cannabinoids [30].
Mother of Berries, ACDC, or Chocolope: Examination of the Strains Used by Medical Cannabis Patients in New England
Published in Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2018
Patients commonly refer to Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica as distinct varieties. According to the popular website Leafly (2017), there are numerous distinct strains which are either C. sativa, C. indica, or hybrids. There is some disagreement among botanists whether C. sativa and C. indica are distinct species (Hillig 2005; Sawler et al. 2015) or sub-species, but there are outward differences. C sativa is taller in height and often has long and narrow leaflets. C. indica, from India, is shorter in stature with broader but shorter leaflets. C. indica and C. sativa samples have been geographically differentiated based on their terpenoid profile (Hillig 2004) and enzymes (Hillig 2005). Among patients, sativas have a reputation for producing more cerebral and stimulating effects while indicas are more sedative and relaxing (Sawler et al. 2015). Some botanists argue that Cannabis ruderalis and Cannabis afghanica are additional species (Piomelli and Russo 2016; although see Small 2015), but this terminology is not used by MC patients. Dispensary staff, colloquially known as bud-tenders, often recommend sativas for appetite and depression and indicas for insomnia, nightmares, anxiety, and chronic pain (Haug et al. 2016). Interestingly, a non-blind, but longitudinal, naturalistic investigation of California MC patients determined that indicas produced significantly greater improvements in both energy and appetite than sativas (Corral 2001).
The level of evidence of medical marijuana use for treating disabilities: a scoping review
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2020
Nichole Stetten, Jamie Pomeranz, Michael Moorhouse, Ali Yurasek, Amy V. Blue
Throughout history, marijuana (MJ) has been used across countries for religious ceremonies, herbal remedies, symptom relief and recreationally [1–3]. Although its medicinal use is well documented, the pharmacology of MJ was only recently described [3]. Cannabis sativa L., Cannabis indica Lam. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. are three identified species of MJ. The strain Cannabis sativa has the highest levels of △9—tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) among the three strains [2,3]. THC is the primary cannabinoid (CB) in MJ and is responsible for the feelings of being “high” [3]. THC communicates to the brain through the endocrine systems, specifically through CB receptors in the endocannabinoid system [1–4]. The endocannabinoid system and CB receptors can be found not only in the brain but also in organs, connective tissues, glands and immune cells [5]. Medical MJ and other drugs that interfere with the endocannabinoid system show promise in their ability to treat certain diseases [1]. As high levels of THC act as a stimulant, it is used medicinally to stimulate appetite in HIV/AIDS patients, patients with eating disorders, treatment of nausea (specifically to treat nausea in cancer patients) and migraines [3]. Cannabis indica is in the same genus as Cannabis sativa but has lower levels of THC and higher levels of cannabidiol (CBD), which lacks the psychoactive properties of THC. The effects of CBD are similar to that of a muscle relaxant and are used in treatments for chronic pain and muscle spasms. Cannabis ruderalis is also known as hemp, and has low levels of CBD and THC, and is not used medicinally or recreationally, but for clothing, linens and cosmetics [3].