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Changing Circumstances and Diets
Published in Christopher Cumo, Ancestral Diets and Nutrition, 2020
Agriculture’s benefits have not silenced critics. Journalists have publicized modern farming’s faults. Factory farms pollute air, land, and water. Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers taint the environment and food supply. Crops deplete soils of nutrients, erosion reduces organic matter, and salts from irrigation water diminish fertility. Cattle emit the greenhouse gas methane (CH4). Poultry raisers immobilize chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in tiny cages. Pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) and cattle wallow in their own excrement. Bacteria like Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori threaten us by multiplying in meat, vegetables, and fruits. Antibiotics and hormones pass from animal products to humans. Critics fault biotechnology for engineering foods whose consequences may be unknown.
Salmonella
Published in Dongyou Liu, Laboratory Models for Foodborne Infections, 2017
Based on their differences in genome sequences, two species (Salmonella bongori and Salmonella enterica) are recognized in the genus Salmonella. While only one subspecies (serotype V) exists in the S. bongori species (which is found mainly in cold-blooded animals such as reptiles, but may be occasionally involved in human infection), six subspecies [i.e., enterica (serotype I), salamae (serotype II), arizonae (IIIa), diarizonae (IIIb), houtenae (IV), and indica (VI)] are identified in the S. enterica species, with the subspecies enterica affecting warm-blooded animals (e.g., mammals) and other subspecies being specific for cold-blooded animals (e.g., reptiles).
Salmonella
Published in Dongyou Liu, Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
S.I. Smith, A. Ajayi, A. Seriki
Salmonella are members of the Enterobacteriaceae, which are gram-negative rods and facultative anaerobes. They are a group of bacteria with a high genetic similarity and are differentiated by their serotyping result.6 In the past, Salmonella had been named with regard to the original place of isolation, for example, Salmonella Ibadan, Salmonella Newport, and Salmonella Kentucky. However, in recent nomenclature to avoid confusion between serotypes and species, the serotype name is not italicized and starts with a capital letter. When cited at first, the genus name is given followed by the word serotype and then the serotype name, for example, Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Typhimurium. Subsequently, the name may be written with the genus followed directly by the serotype name, for example, Salmonella Typhimurium.6,7 In line with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) system, taxonomically the genus Salmonella is divided into two species: Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. These species contain several serotypes. Salmonella enterica is divided into six subspecies, which are distinguishable by certain biochemical characterization and susceptibility to lysis by bacteriophage Felix 01. They are S. enterica subsp. enterica (I), S. enterica subsp. salamae (II), S. enterica subsp. arizonae (IIIa), S. enterica subsp. diarizonae (IIIb), S. enterica subsp. houtenae (IV), and S. enterica subsp. indica (VI).8Salmonella enterica subspecies I is normally isolated from warm-blooded animals and makes up 99% of clinical isolates causing human infections, while other Salmonella enterica subspecies are usually isolated from cold-blooded animals and the environment but rarely from humans.9
The ancestral stringent response potentiator, DksA has been adapted throughout Salmonella evolution to orchestrate the expression of metabolic, motility, and virulence pathways
Published in Gut Microbes, 2022
Helit Cohen, Boaz Adani, Emiliano Cohen, Bar Piscon, Shalhevet Azriel, Prerak Desai, Heike Bähre, Michael McClelland, Galia Rahav, Ohad Gal-Mor
The ubiquitous bacterial genus Salmonella is a facultative intracellular animal and human pathogen, belonging to the Proteobacteria phylum. The Salmonella genus comprises the two defined species Salmonella bongori (S. bongori) and Salmonella enterica (S. enterica). Salmonella diverged from a common ancestor with Escherichia coli about 100–160 million years ago.1,2 The two current species of Salmonella diverged from a common ancestor about 40 to 63 million years ago.1,3,4 One of these species, S. bongori, is frequently associated with infection of cold-blooded animals, like reptiles and amphibians. The other species, S. enterica, includes seven distinct subspecies. Among the S. enterica subspecies known, subspecies enterica (ssp. I) is associated with human and warm-blooded animal infections and responsible for 99% of all human salmonellosis infections.5
Prevalence of fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella serotypes in Iran: a meta-analysis
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2020
Farzad Khademi, Hamid Vaez, Fahimeh Ghanbari, Mohsen Arzanlou, Jafar Mohammadshahi, Amirhossein Sahebkar
The genus Salmonella belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae and includes two main species, i.e. Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. This genus has around 2,600 unique serotypes, which are characterized as Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe, rod-shaped and motile with peritrichous flagella [1–3]. Salmonella serotypes are also known as enteric bacteria and cause zoonotic diseases that vary in severity from a local infection called gastroenteritis to systemic infections such as septicemia, paratyphoid fever and enteric fever (typhoid fever) [1,2,4]. Additionally, asymptomatic colonization of Salmonella serotypes adapted to humans in the gallbladder can establish human chronic carriers, which along with oral ingestion of contaminated water and food products such as poultry, eggs and dairy products are considered as the major dissemination routes for human diseases [2,4]. Individuals younger than 5 and older than 60 years as well as immunocompromised patients are more susceptible to Salmonella infections [2,4]. On the other hand, Salmonella infections are important in both developed and developing countries in terms of hospitalization as well as public health and economic impacts [5,6]. However, the efficacy of antibiotic treatment for Salmonella infections has been challenged by the emergence of antibiotic-resistant, especially multidrug-resistant (MDR), Salmonella serotypes [5]. Antibiotic therapy is not needed for Salmonella-induced gastroenteritis while for invasive Salmonella infections, ampicillin, chloramphenicol and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole are used as the first-line treatments [1,2]. However, emerging MDR Salmonella species have changed the treatment regimen toward using fluoroquinolones and third-generation cephalosporins [1]. Nonetheless, the prevalence of fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella species is growing according to the World Health Organization (WHO) reports, warning that these species may become a great threat to human health [7]. The prevalence of antibiotic resistance of Salmonella serotypes has been studied sporadically in different cities of Iran but there has been no comprehensive study in this regard. Therefore, the present systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Salmonella serotypes, especially fluoroquinolone-resistant serotypes, recovered from clinical samples in Iran.