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Anatomy of the head and neck
Published in Helen Whitwell, Christopher Milroy, Daniel du Plessis, Forensic Neuropathology, 2021
Above the midbrain lies the forebrain (termed the ‘prosencephalon’). This comprises the paired cerebral hemispheres on each side of the centrally located tissue called the diencephalon. The diencephalon is the site of the epithalamus, thalamus, subthalamus and hypothalamus.
The patient with acute neurological problems
Published in Peate Ian, Dutton Helen, Acute Nursing Care, 2020
The epithalamus consists of the pineal gland and the habenular nuclei. The pineal gland secretes melatonin and is considered an endocrine gland. The habenular nuclei have an integrative role, linking smell and emotion. For example, a particular smell may evoke a specific memory.
Motor Function and ControlDescending Tracts
Published in Peter Kam, Ian Power, Michael J. Cousins, Philip J. Siddal, Principles of Physiology for the Anaesthetist, 2020
Peter Kam, Ian Power, Michael J. Cousins, Philip J. Siddal
The diencephalon, which lies deep within the brain, connects the midbrain to the forebrain. It consists of the epithalamus (pineal gland and habenular nuclei which has connections to the limbic system), thalamus, subthalamus and hypothalamus.
The Volumetric Changes of the Pineal Gland with Age: An Atlas-based Structural Analysis
Published in Experimental Aging Research, 2022
Minoo Sisakhti, Lida Shafaghi, Seyed Amir Hossein Batouli
The pineal gland is an interhemispheric neuroendocrine organ that, as a small canonical gland of about 100 mm3, along with habenula nuclei is located medially in the epithalamus of the vertebrate brain, and is surrounded by the structures such as the posterior third ventricle, thalami, and the splenium of the corpus callosum. It contains varied categories of cells such as pinealocytes (80% of the gland), astrocytes, microglia, and more recently evidenced pineal neurons and peptidergic neuron-like cells. This circumventricular organ, as a whole apparatus, concludes mechanisms for synthesis and secretion (into the bloodstream and CSF) of the indoleamine melatonin (N-acetyl-methoxytryptamine)-as the most identified one-, as well as the serotonin, arginine, vasotocin, and some forms of the neurosteroids (Beker-Acay et al., 2016; Khavinson & Lin’kova, 2012; J. Park et al., 2018; Sigurdardottir et al., 2016).
The habenular volume and PDE7A allelic polymorphism in major depressive disorder: preliminary findings
Published in The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2023
Lyubomir I. Aftanas, Elena A. Filimonova, Maksim S. Anisimenko, Darya A. Berdyugina, Maria V. Rezakova, German G. Simutkin, Nikolay A. Bokhan, Svetlana A. Ivanova, Konstantin V. Danilenko, Tatiana V. Lipina
The habenula is a small structure of the epithalamus connecting neural networks of the striatum and the limbic system to control serotonergic and monoaminergic neurotransmission from the midbrain to the forebrain (Savitz et al. 2011). Due to its unique location, the habenula modulates motor responses and plays a key role in motivational behaviour and participates in decision-making processes (Hikosaka et al. 2008; Hikosaka 2010). The negative stimuli, prediction of aversion per se as well as frustration, i.e. stimuli which trigger scanty reward than its expected, activate the habenula (Matsumoto and Hikosaka 2007, 2009), whereas its functioning is suppressed in anticipation of rewarding outcomes.
Revisiting the pineal gland: a review of calcification, masses, precocious puberty, and melatonin functions
Published in International Journal of Neuroscience, 2020
Shrey Patel, Benjamin Rahmani, Jason Gandhi, Omar Seyam, Gunjan Joshi, Inefta Reid, Noel L. Smith, Wayne C. Waltzer, Sardar Ali Khan
Due to its ability to secrete hormones such as melatonin right into the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) without the use of ducts makes it an endocrine organ it is categorized as a endocrine gland. The pineal body can be located in the epithalamus which is geometrically located in the center of the brain [5,6]. The gland becomes fully developed around five to seven years of age and is approximately 0.8 cm long and weighs about 0.1 g. It is located in the posterior of the cranial fossa and it is inferior to the splenium of the corpus callosum (Figure 1). Table 1 delineates the orientation of the pineal gland with respect to the major structures of the mammalian brain [7].