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Taming the Enemy
Published in Norman Begg, The Remarkable Story of Vaccines, 2023
Hepatitis B and HPV vaccines both use genetic technology, but there is no genetic material in the final product. The last decade has seen huge advances with the development of vaccines that actually contain genetic material. There are two types – based on either DNA or RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA is a bit like a brain. It has the knowledge to produce proteins – the building blocks of life – but lacks the physical ability to carry out its instructions. This is the job of messenger RNA or mRNA for short, the arms and legs of our genes. The DNA of someone with blue eyes has the code to produce cells with the right pigment, but it needs their RNA to execute production.
Biological Basis of Behavior
Published in Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Hay, Understanding Psychology for Medicine and Nursing, 2019
A strand of DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules. There are four types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene. Messenger RNA serves as a template for the synthesis of protein molecules. DNA contains four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine). The order of those bases determines the order of corresponding bases along an RNA molecule (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil). In turn, the order of bases along an RNA molecule determines the order of amino acids that compose a protein, e.g., if three RNA bases are, in order, cytosine, adenine, and guanine, then the protein adds the amino acid glutamine. If the next three RNA bases are uracil, guanine, and guanine, the next amino acid on the protein is tryptophan. In total, proteins consist of 20 amino acids, and the order of those amino acids depends on the order of DNA and RNA bases.
Nucleic Acids
Published in Danilo D. Lasic, LIPOSOMES in GENE DELIVERY, 2019
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and carry genetic information. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the complete genetic information that specifies the structure of all the proteins and ribonucleic acids of the organism. It determines in space and time the biosynthesis, activity, and individuality of a given organism during its life. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) normally carries information stored in DNA to the protein production sites. Genetic information is coded in the sequence of four different bases attached to the molecular backbone in a specific order.
The oral microbiome in alcohol use disorder: a longitudinal analysis during inpatient treatment
Published in Journal of Oral Microbiology, 2022
JJ Barb, KA Maki, N Kazmi, BK Meeks, M Krumlauf, RT Tuason, AT Brooks, NJ Ames, D Goldman, GR Wallen
DNA preparation and amplification of 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene regions are detailed in Ames et al. (2020) [23]. Briefly, seven hypervariable (V) regions of the 16S rRNA gene (V2, V3, V4, V6-7, V8, V9) were amplified using the Ion 16S™ Metagenomics Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA). Data from all V regions were included in this analysis except that from V9 based on previous findings [31]. Amplified DNA was pooled, and purified, and barcoded libraries were created for each sample using the Ion Fragment Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA). Purified and quantitated libraries were diluted to 100 pM and templated to beads using the Ion PGM HiQ View One Touch 2 System and the One Touch 2 520/530 kit (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA). Templated libraries were sequenced on the Ion Torrent S5 XL semiconductor sequencer with an Ion 530 chip. Four samples were re-sequenced because they did not meet a threshold of 150,000 reads, making a total of 216 fastq files submitted for bioinformatics processing. Each chip included mock microbiome samples as quality control standards: ATCC® MSA-1002 and ATCC® MSA-1003 (American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA).
Alzheimer’s disease: a scoping review of biomarker research and development for effective disease diagnosis
Published in Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics, 2022
Khushboo Govind Faldu, Jigna Samir Shah
miRNAs are non-coding ribonucleic acid (RNAs) that are single-stranded and made up of around 22 nucleotides. miRNA targets messenger RNA (mRNA) and post-transcriptionally suppresses gene expression [196]. The latest version 22.1 of the database miRbase holds the data of 38,589 hairpin precursor miRNAs of 271 organisms which can generate 48,860 unique mature miRNA sequences [197]. The genome of a human being comprises 1917 annotated hairpin precursors and 2654 matured sequences that can essentially target around 60% of the protein-coding genes in humans. Every miRNA can essentially target multiple target genes through annellation of complementary sequences in 3’ untranslated regions in the target mRNAs of the protein-coding genes that lead to the cleavage of mRNA or suppression of protein synthesis through suppression of the translational machinery [196].
Sex differences in schizophrenia relevant to clinical care
Published in Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 2021
There are biological differences between all men and women, and the origin of this difference continues to be controversial. Arnold [9] proposed a general theory of sex difference in humans that rests on the fact that most females, at conception, possess two X chromosomes while most males have one X and one Y. There are some male-specific genes on the Y chromosome that females all lack, the main one being the testis-determining gene from which testes develop. In its absence, ovaries arise. Testes in men and ovaries in women secrete different levels of hormones (estrogens, androgens, progestins, and anti-Müllerian hormone) that subsequently exert an influence on most body organs, including, notably, the brain. The presence of two X chromosomes in females means that, in each cell, one of the two (either the maternal or the paternal X) has to be silenced in order to establish sexual equivalency of gene products. This process is called X chromosome inactivation, a mechanism for which the Xist gene is responsible. It encodes a long non-coding ribonucleic acid (RNA) sequence that is expressed only on the X chromosome that is destined for inactivation [10].