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The Viruses
Published in Julius P. Kreier, Infection, Resistance, and Immunity, 2022
Rabies is caused by a bullet-shaped, RNA-containing virus which has been classed with the Rhabdoviridae (Table 16.1). 11 can infect virtually all mammals and is transmitted in saliva inoculated by the bite of diseased animals. Rabies may sometimes be acquired by inhalation of aerosols in caves inhabited by large numbers of rabid bats. Rabies virus has a worldwide distribution, and there is a considerable reservoir of the virus in wild animals, which frustrates control efforts. The main sources of human rabies infection are unvaccinated pets that contract the virus from wild animals. Most control efforts are directed at the pet population. Attempts to control the infection in wild animals may be possible by use of oral vaccines in bait.
Order Mononegavirales
Published in Paul Pumpens, Peter Pushko, Philippe Le Mercier, Virus-Like Particles, 2022
Paul Pumpens, Peter Pushko, Philippe Le Mercier
The Rhabdoviridae family, which is the largest family of the Mononegavirales order, contains bullet-shaped and bacilliform viruses (shown in Figure 31.1e) and consists of 3 subfamilies, 40 genera with 246 species (Walker et al. 2018). The most popular representatives of the Rhabdoviridae family are rabies virus (RABV) of the Lyssavirus genus and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) of the species Indiana vesiculovirus from the genus Vesiculovirus. The VSV is one of the classical objects and subjects of modern virology, immunology, and gene therapy. Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) of the Salmonid novirhabdovirus species, genus Novirhabdovirus, remains a global burden of fishery, since it causes the disease known as infectious hematopoietic necrosis in salmonid fish such as trout and salmon.
Animal Bites
Published in Firza Alexander Gronthoud, Practical Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 2020
Rabies is an RNA virus belonging to the genus Lyssavirus in the family Rhabdoviridae, order Mononegavirales. Rabies remains the most lethal infectious disease associated with animal bites. Dog bites are the predominant route of rabies transmission worldwide. Most cases of rabies (95%) occur in Africa and Asia, mainly in India. There has been a significant decrease in dog rabies cases in Latin America and the Caribbean. In Western Europe, Canada, the United States, Japan and some Latin American countries, dog rabies has been eliminated. Bats account for the predominant route of transmission in the Americas. In Europe, rabies is mostly found in bats and foxes. Australia, the United Kingdom and parts of Western Europe are considered free of rabies in terrestrial animals due to wildlife vaccination programmes, together with the availability of effective commercial vaccination for domestic animals.
Differential infection of murine and human dendritic cell subsets by oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus variants
Published in OncoImmunology, 2021
Lisa Pipperger, Lydia Riepler, Janine Kimpel, Anita Siller, Patrizia Stoitzner, Zoltán Bánki, Dorothee von Laer
Oncolytic virotherapy represents a new promising approach for cancer treatment. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) not only target and eradicate tumor cells but initiate also antitumor immunity and modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME). Thereby, the immune tolerance of the tumor can be overridden.16 The vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) belongs to the family of Rhabdoviridae and is an oncolytic agent currently under pre-clinical and clinical testing.17 However, the neurotropism of VSV presents a safety concern. The exchange of the glycoprotein G of VSV with the glycoprotein GP of the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) abrogates VSV’s neurotoxicity while maintaining the oncolytic activity.18 This chimeric virus called VSV-GP is safe, induces strong antigen-specific immune responses but low vector-neutralizing antibodies, and is applicable as OV19–22 or vaccine vector.23,24
Child survivor of rabies in India: a case report
Published in Paediatrics and International Child Health, 2020
Biju John, Shyam Kumar, Sudeep Kumar, S. S. Dalal, Aneesh Mohimen
Rabies is an acute fatal encephalomyelitis caused by a Lyssavirus from the Rhabdoviridae family and is usually contracted following a bite by an infected mammal. Rabies transmitted by dogs is responsible for most human cases reported worldwide while bat-related rabies accounts for a significant proportion in the American continent. Approximately 59,000 people die of rabies annually, most of them in Asia and Africa. India alone contributes to almost a third of the global disease burden [1]. Rabies usually occurs in two classical forms: furious or encephalitic rabies which accounts for almost 80% of cases and paralytic or dumb rabies which accounts for the remainder. While clinical diagnosis of furious rabies following exposure can be straightforward, a diagnosis of paralytic rabies without a history of exposure can be challenging. In furious rabies, death ensues at an average 5.7 days from disease onset and death in the paralytic form at an average interval of 11 days [2]. Ante-mortem diagnosis of rabies which relies mainly on detection of rabies virus neutralising antibody can be a major challenge in those who have received post-exposure vaccination [3,4]. In the last several years, cases of rabies survivors have been reported in vaccinated individuals. There are, however, differences in the presentation and investigative findings [4]. A 4-year-old rabies survivor is presented and the evolution of his clinical, laboratory and radiological signs during hospitalisation is described.
Post-exposure prophylactic vaccine candidates for the treatment of human Risk Group 4 pathogen infections
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2020
James Logue, Ian Crozier, Peter B Jahrling, Jens H Kuhn
Though PEP vaccines have been licensed sparingly by the FDA, the use of PEP vaccines can be very effective especially when routes of pathogen exposure are well documented, such as exposure due to contact with animals known to carry a particular pathogen. Perhaps the most well-known PEP vaccine strategy is deployed after known or potential rabies virus (RABV, Rhabdoviridae: Lyssavirus) exposure. RABV passes from infected mammals to humans when animal saliva is introduced through bites or scratches, particularly from dogs and bats [9]. If left untreated, the virus causes rabies, a debilitating encephalitis leading to 40,000–70,000 deaths annually [10,11]. Rabies prevention methods that included the large-scale vaccination of dogs to prevent RABV transmission to humans in the 1950s were effective in curtailing this disease, at least in the western hemisphere [12]. However, extensive postexposure studies in animals throughout the 1990s [13–17] prompted the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to include the recommendation of a PEP vaccination in combination with passive antibody treatment in the event of potential RABV exposure [18]. Since the incorporation of vaccine plus antibody PEP into the treatment regimen and the large-scale vaccination of dogs, rabies cases have dramatically decreased in developed countries; only 33 rabies cases were diagnosed in the US from 2003 to 2014 [19].