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Taming the Enemy
Published in Norman Begg, The Remarkable Story of Vaccines, 2023
An inactivated vaccine is made by killing the virus or bacterium, either chemically or with heat. The virus or bacterium in an inactivated vaccine is dead, incapable of multiplying, also known as non-replicating. Many of the early vaccines of the nineteenth century such as rabies, typhoid and cholera were made by inactivation, and a few modern vaccines such as polio and hepatitis A still use this method. Their inability to multiply makes them very safe; however, they tend to provide protection which doesn’t last for long, so booster injections have to be given. Inactivated polio vaccines need three initial doses, followed by two boosters, to provide full protection. This protection lasts for ten years, so if you travel somewhere that there is still polio and it is more than ten years since your last vaccination, you will need a further booster.
Poliovirus
Published in Patricia G. Melloy, Viruses and Society, 2023
The use of the oral polio vaccine (OPV) was in place in the United States until the year 2000 when the recommendation was changed back to exclusively the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). From 1961 to 2000, there were reports of a very small number of cases of paralytic polio, mostly in adults, caused by exposure to someone who had recently taken the OPV or by OPV itself. These cases did not change the recommendation for the vaccine strategy for many years (Blume and Geesink 2000; Alexander et al. 2004). Researchers estimated that between 1961 and 1989, there were nine cases per year in the United States (out of the millions of polio vaccine doses administered) of polio acquired directly or indirectly from the vaccine, also known as vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP). An epidemiological study found that no cases of VAPP have occurred in the United States since the switch to IPV in the year 2000 (Alexander et al. 2004).
Neuroinfectious Diseases
Published in Philip B. Gorelick, Fernando D. Testai, Graeme J. Hankey, Joanna M. Wardlaw, Hankey's Clinical Neurology, 2020
Jeremy D. Young, Jesica A. Herrick, Scott Borgetti
Bivalent oral polio vaccine is administered at birth and at 6, 10, and 14 weeks of age and one dose of IPV at ≥14 weeks of age per WHO recommendations.15 Where poliomyelitis is endemic, primary immunization with Sabin OPV causes disease in 1 of every 900,000 on the first dose.16 The risk is higher in those with immunodeficiency, and it is contraindicated in these patients.
Current status of COVID-19 vaccination: safety and liability concern for children, pregnant and lactating women
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2022
Swagat Kumar Das, Manish Paul, Bikash Chandra Behera, Hrudayanath Thatoi
Repurposing vaccinations has recently been proposed as a potential treatment for COVID-19. The current repurposed vaccine’s frontrunner is the BCG vaccine which is targeted against tuberculosis. Similarly, the MMR (Mumps, Measles, Rubella) vaccine, which is made up of an attenuated enveloped RNA virus, has been shown to induce the release of interferons (IFNs) and activated natural killer (NK) cells in patients, resulting in innate immunity. The enveloped RNA viruses have glycoprotein spikes similar to that of SARS- CoV-2, and MMR vaccines may provide cross-protection against SARS- CoV-2 virus and could prevent or ameliorate COVID-19 disease [23]. Similarly, it has been proposed that the Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV), which is made up of live attenuated viruses, can provide nonspecific protection against illnesses caused by a variety of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2.
Cross-neutralization Capacity of Immune Serum from Different Dosage of Sabin Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine Immunization against Multiple Individual Polioviruses
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2021
Kai Chu, Weixiao Han, Deyu Jiang, Zhiwei Jiang, Taotao Zhu, Wenbo Xu, Yuemei Hu, Gang Zeng
Poliomyelitis is a paralytic disease caused by any of the three poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3, especially in children aged <5 years [1]. The vaccination era started in 1955 when the inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) developed by Jonas Salk was licensed in the USA, followed by the oral polio vaccine (OPV) by Albert Sabin licensed in 1961 [2]. The widespread introduction of polio vaccines has prompted a rapid decline in cases with poliomyelitis worldwide. Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) in 1988, which reduced the global incidence of polio by 99.9% [3,4]. The WHO currently recommends the need to not only rapidly eradicate wild polioviruses but also prevent the occurrence of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP), recurrent circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), and immunodeficient vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) [5–7]. The incidence of VAPP is estimated to be 2–4 cases/million birth cohort per year in countries using OPV [8], and the attenuated viruses in live OPV may re-acquire neurovirulence and transmissibility through prolonged replication in an individual or community and finally transform into cVDPVs [9–11].
Hypothetical emergence of poliovirus in 2020: part 2. exploration of the potential role of vaccines in control and eradication
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2021
Kimberly M. Thompson, Dominika A. Kalkowska, Kamran Badizadegan
As in the reality with polio, the available polio vaccines could achieve eradication, but this depends on an effective vaccination strategy. Specifically, the GPEI certified eradication of endemic transmission of WPV2 and WPV3 by using a 3 or 4 dose childhood routine immunization schedule with OPV in most countries and by performing supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) with OPV that aimed to increase coverage in young children to increase the population immunity to transmission. Prior modeling demonstrates the dynamics of population immunity to transmission and die out [70,71]. The GPEI immunization strategy increased population immunity to levels high enough that the WPVs died out, such that as of 2020, all countries successfully interrupted indigenous transmission of all WPVs, except for Pakistan and Afghanistan where WPV1 transmission continues to date [63]. Thus, the development of vaccine tools can support the eradication of some emerging and established diseases, but achieving eradication depends on the vaccine properties and coverage achieved with the specific vaccine strategies. Eradication also depends on overcoming the ‘weak links’ [72], which continues to become increasingly difficult as the population and international travel increases substantially over time (Figure 1). Arguably, the success of SARS control and eradication in 2003 and failure of COVID-19 control and eradication in 2020 are in part due to substantial growth in global population in the context of an even larger increase in travel, rendering SARS-like NPIs less effective in the battle against COVID-19.