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How Pandemics End
Published in William C. Cockerham, Geoffrey B. Cockerham, The COVID-19 Reader, 2020
Other flu pandemics followed, none so bad but all nonetheless sobering. In the Hong Kong flu of 1968, 1 million people died worldwide, including 100,000 in the United States, mostly people older than 65. That virus still circulates as a seasonal flu, and its initial path of destruction—and the fear that went with it—is rarely recalled.
Applications of AI, IoT, IoMT, and Biosensing Devices in Curbing COVID-19
Published in Fadi Al-Turjman, AI-Powered IoT for COVID-19, 2020
Basil Bartholomew Duwa, Mehmet Ozsoz, Fadi Al-Turjman
Hong Kong flu, as the name implies, is an Asian flu which is one of the major pandemics recorded in the 20th century. The first outbreak was recorded in the year 1968 in Hong Kong (Table 7.3).
COVID-19 Outbreak
Published in Gitanjali Rahul Shinde, Asmita Balasaheb Kalamkar, Parikshit N. Mahalle, Nilanjan Dey, Data Analytics for Pandemics, 2020
Gitanjali Rahul Shinde, Asmita Balasaheb Kalamkar, Parikshit N. Mahalle, Nilanjan Dey
In the early 1900, the Spanish flu influenza pandemic occurred. Twenty to hundred million deaths were reported [13]. In 1950 the Asian flu influenza happened. A total of 1.5 million deaths were reported [14]. In 1968 the Hong Kong flu influenza pandemic occurred. A total of 1 million deaths were reported [15]. Finally in 1981, the HIV/AIDS pandemic occurred which claimed 36.7 million deaths. These pandemics caused a major economy loss [16]. The statistics are shown with the help of a graph in Figure 1.2 (b).
An overview of advancement in aptasensors for influenza detection
Published in Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics, 2022
Varsha Gautam, Ramesh Kumar, Vinod Kumar Jain, Suman Nagpal
The influenza pandemic of 1918 (H1N1), Asian flu of 1957 (H2N2) and Hong Kong flu, of 1968 (H3N2), were three of the most significant outbreaks of influenza world widely during the 20th century [3]. The 2009–2010 flu season also caused a 21st century flu pandemic, which included the H1N1 virus, known as swine flu, as swines that were the primary host of viral infections [4]. About 60.8 million infected cases, 274,304 cases of hospitalization and 12,469 influenza-related deaths in 2009 were recorded in the United States. The virus was detected in geese in China for the first time in 1996 [5]. Asian H5N1 flu was first detected in humans in 1997 during a Hong Kong poultry outbreak, after which it was detected in the poultry and wild birds of more than 50 African, Asian, European, and Middle East countries [6]. About 861 human influenza A (H5N1) infections have been recorded in 17 countries from January 2003 to 26 March 2020 [7]. Some other cases with other variants referred to as ‘avian influenza 2’ or ‘zoonotic influenza’ viruses include (H5N6). (H7N4). (H7N9) have also been identified, but in smaller numbers [8,9].
Emerging and state of the art hemagglutinin-targeted influenza virus inhibitors.
Published in Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 2021
Qiao Zhang, Taizhen Liang, Kutty Selva Nandakumar, Shuwen Liu
Influenza virus infection is one of the major threats to human health and it causes high morbidity and mortality rates especially during global pandemic periods [1]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), around 5–10% of the adults and 20–30% of the children are affected by annual seasonal epidemics, and up to 650,000 deaths are associated with the respiratory disease worldwide [2]. To escape from host antiviral immune response, high frequency of amino acid mutations of HA and occasional genetic reassortment occurs continuously in different influenza subtype strains, results in antigenic drift and antigenic shift, which are responsible for the outbreaks of influenza epidemic and pandemic, respectively [3]. To date, the emergence of novel viral strains caused by antigenic shift led to all the four notorious pandemics of influenza since 1918 (Spanish flu in 1918, Asian flu in 1957, Hong Kong Flu in 1968, and H1N1 pandemics in 2009). It was estimated that the 1918 Spanish flu caused nearly 50 million deaths worldwide, probably the greatest loss in human history [4]. In recent years, the infected cases with highly pathogenic flu strains H5N1 and H7N9 were reported constantly, raising concerns with high risk to the next pandemic outbreak. In 2015, of the total of 342 infected cases with H5N1, 115 patients succumbed to death in Egypt [5]. H7N9 was first identified in China in March 2013. The total number of accumulated cases with H7N9 infection as reported by WHO, was 1565 for the period 2013 to 2017, and nearly 39% of them died, higher mortality rate compared to the infections with other influenza subtypes [6].
Novel antiviral drug discovery strategies to tackle drug-resistant mutants of influenza virus strains
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery, 2019
Influenza viruses continue to change their antigenicity by successfully evading the host immunity to infections. The antigenic drift caused by genetic mutations in the influenza viral genome not only leads to the emergence of drug-resistant strains [1–3] but also evades antibody-mediated viral neutralization [4,5]. Although antivirals and vaccines are available for influenza A and B viruses, 300,000 to 500,000 individuals die of influenza infections every year worldwide [6,7]. Influenza viruses are classified based on their antigenic differences in the viral nucleoprotein (NP) and matrix protein 1 (M1). Based on the serological reactivity of their antigenic surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are further divided into 18 HA subtypes and 11 NA subtypes among the IAVs [8]. Frequent antigenic drift due to mutations is responsible for annual epidemics, whereas occasional antigenic shifts (genetic reassortments along with secondary modification, e.g., glycosylation of HA and NA) result in major pandemics such as the Spanish flu (1918), Asian flu (1957), Hong Kong flu (1968), and the most recent 2009 H1N1 pandemic [9]. The constant threat posed by influenza viruses to humans has led to continued efforts over the years to develop and deploy more effective antivirals [10] and broadly protective vaccines [11].