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Published in Henry J. Woodford, Essential Geriatrics, 2022
Influenza vaccination is potentially the most cost-effective approach. The vaccine is made of non-infectious particles. It may take four to six weeks for sufficient antibody response following administration. The effects last a few months and, therefore, it is typically given around October–November. Age-related changes in immune function can make vaccines less effective in older adults. Unfortunately, most studies have possible bias due to their design and efficacy estimations are difficult. Influenza varies in both severity of outbreak and strain of virus between seasons. A Cochrane review found low certainty evidence that vaccinations reduce influenza infections in older people compared to placebo (RR 0.42; 95% CI 0.27–0.66; 2.4% v 6%; NNT = 28).59 Current UK recommendations are for all people aged over 65 years to have an annual influenza immunisation.
Order Zurhausenvirales
Published in Paul Pumpens, Peter Pushko, Philippe Le Mercier, Virus-Like Particles, 2022
Paul Pumpens, Peter Pushko, Philippe Le Mercier
Second, the bivalent Cervarix™, containing the HPV16 and HPV18 L1 VLPs produced in baculovirus-infected insect cells and adjuvanted with AS04, has also shown sustained efficacy for up to 4.5 years (Harper et al. 2006; Schiller et al. 2008). Szarewski (2012) summarized the Cervarix™ vaccination data and stressed the significant cross-protection against some HPV types not included in the vaccine, where protection against HPV45 was particularly important, as this HPV type was relatively more common in adenocarcinoma. Moreover, the vaccine’s antibody response profile suggested a long duration of immunity.
Neuroinfectious Diseases
Published in Philip B. Gorelick, Fernando D. Testai, Graeme J. Hankey, Joanna M. Wardlaw, Hankey's Clinical Neurology, 2020
Jeremy D. Young, Jesica A. Herrick, Scott Borgetti
Vaccine (1.0 mL) is given IM for both pre- and postexposure prophylaxis. An effective antibody response requires about 7–10 days, and detectable, neutralizing antibodies persist for several years.
The roles of epidermal growth factor receptor in viral infections
Published in Growth Factors, 2022
Following innate immunity, adaptive immune system is also activated upon viral infection. APCs such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells play a key role in initiating adaptive immunity. They engulf virus to process viral antigen into peptide fragments and display those peptides bound by the MHC on their cell surface (Heise 2014). Circulating T cells are activated by the interaction of their T-cell receptors (TCRs) with peptides bound to the MHC molecules. Subsequently, T cells differentiate into cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ cells) or T-helper (Th) cells (CD4+ cells). Cytotoxic T cells destroy the cells infected by virus, while Th cells secrete antiviral cytokines, recruit antigen-specific effectors to the site of infection and aid neutralising antibody response by B cells. In contrast to T cells, B cells are activated through direct recognition of antigens. Activated B cells undergo proliferation and differentiate into plasma cells, which secrete large quantities of antibodies, or memory B cells which initiate more rapid antibody response upon re-exposure to the antigen (Iannello et al. 2006; Warrington et al. 2011).
A Differential Immune Modulating Role of Vitamin D in Urinary Tract Infection.
Published in Immunological Investigations, 2022
Obviously, a protective antibody response can be induced against infection and/or following vaccination (Bartlett et al. 2009; Hopkins and Uehling 1995). Our findings indicated higher levels of IgG and IgA in the sera of patients than those in the control group without any significant difference in the serum levels of IgM. The bacterial adherence and colonization could have resulted in the recall of serum antibody response since this might correspond with inhibition of bacterial adhesion which was in agreement with previous studies (Alteri et al. 2009; Imani Fooladi et al. 2014; Layton and Smithyman 1983). Presumably, proper vitamin D levels might be important to prepare the microenvironment for B cell activation to mount IgG production as a possible result of selective changes in the nature and the extent of VDR binding sites mediated by antigen stimulation, although the production level of IgA might be enhanced by the presence of bacteria resulted in a proper/sufficient antigen experience. Alteration of cytokine production may postulate to be involved in this effect. In recent studies, it has been established that the IL-10 synthesis primarily by mast cells involves in a failure to attenuate persistent bacterial burden in the bladder due to the impairment of class switching and defective production of antigen-specific antibodies (Choi et al. 2016; Hopkins et al. 1998; Pellegrino et al. 2003).
Convalescent plasma and hyperimmune globulin therapy in COVID-19
Published in Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, 2021
Antibodies are the vital humoral components of the plasma and their production is the result of the B cell’s adaptation to antigens. Being an adaptive immune mechanism, antibodies are important, especially in the clearance of the bacterial agents. Thus, the consequence of antibody deficiency is the susceptibility to bacterial infections. However, their presence is shown to prevent the development of viral infections. Antigen-specific antibodies are usually measured to see the antigen-specific response to infections in a bacterial or viral infectious disease. A specific immune response is induced, resulting in the active protection of the individual in vaccination, similar to infections. Although both the specific antibody responses and specific T cell responses should be measured in monitoring the active immune response, the antibody response is usually measured as it is easier. Many antibodies and specific T cells against many different antigenic epitopes are produced in case of an infectious disease. Despite the technological advancements, there are limitations in the in vitro measurement of specific antibodies and specific T cells. This leads to the limitations of the standard use in the global era. This is a secondary challenge in the studies.