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Electricity storage
Published in Sven Ruin, Göran Sidén, Small-Scale Renewable Energy Systems, 2019
A common use of batteries in the smallest renewable energy systems is 12 V, 24 V and 48 V systems using lead-acid batteries. These are nominal voltages – actual voltage can be a little higher or lower. Nowadays also more advanced battery systems of much higher voltage, such as Tesla Powerwall, are available for the homeowner. A battery inverter can be used to convert the direct current (DC) of the battery to alternating current (AC), and it is often bi-directional.
Estimating the value of jointly optimized electric power generation and end use: a study of ISO-scale load shaping applied to the residential building stock
Published in Journal of Building Performance Simulation, 2021
Robert Cruickshank, Gregor Henze, Anthony Florita, Charles Corbin, Killian Stone
The battery was modelled with no standby losses (i.e. it maintained its charge over time). SOC was constrained to equal 50% at the beginning and end of every daily simulation which: (a) ensured that batteries were ready to charge or discharge at the start of simulation, and (b) simplified checksum calculations for the conservation of energy. The battery model assumed a combined 89% round trip charge and discharge efficiency (calculated during charge) (I. Tesla 2019), no standby losses, and a maximum hourly charging rate of 25% of battery size. The battery was sized at 13.5 kWh, as commonly found in a Tesla Powerwall (I. Tesla 2019). In attempting to follow the daily OLS, MPC adjusted the SOC setpoints causing batteries to charge and discharge over time.
Optimal utilization of integrated photovoltaic battery systems: An application in the residential sector
Published in IISE Transactions, 2022
Zeyu Liu, Mohammad Ramshani, Anahita Khojandi, Xueping Li
Note that the cost of a battery package with a capacity of 13.5 kWhs is on the order of $6500 (e.g., Tesla PowerWall without any extra accessories (Energy Sage, 2020b)). In addition, the average electricity cost is estimated to be on the order of 10.3 cents/kWh for a major city in the southeastern US (Ramshani et al., 2020). For the same city, the demand of an average household, representing the average daily energy consumption, is estimated as 15.0 kWhs (Ramshani et al., 2020). We use a discount factor of 0.9997, estimated according to the annual interest rate in the U.S. (Bank, 2021).