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Production of Bio-Oil
Published in M.R. Riazi, David Chiaramonti, Biofuels Production and Processing Technology, 2017
Kevin M. Van Geem, Ismaël Amghizar, Florence Vermeire, Ruben De Bruycker, M.R. Riazi, David Chiaramonti
The biomass feedstock can be vegetable oils but also tall oil, low-value waste fats, and greases. Tall oil is a by-product of the Kraft pulping industry and mainly consists of fatty acids, resin acids, and sterols (Norlin 2005). Pretreatment of the biomass feedstock may be necessary, in particular when using low-grade and waste oils. The raw feed may contain several contaminants such as animals solids, phosphorus, and solubilized alkali/alkaline earth metals (Choudhary and Phillips 2011, Kubička and Kaluža 2010). The feed is typically pretreated in four different steps. The first step includes a filtration where all the large particles and solids are removed. Subsequently, the oil is mixed with aqueous acid, typically 10:1 (oil:water) is applied, where the different soluble metals and phosphorus are removed. This water is then separated through coalescing the water droplets. Finally, the oil is filtered to ensure the removal of particles that may be formed during the washing step (Abhari and Havlik 2008).
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Published in Joseph C. Salamone, Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia, 2020
Tall oil is a by-product of the delignification of resinous woods. During kraft or bisulfite pulping, resins and fats contained in the wood are converted into fatty acids and resinate salts by saponification. After treatment of the black liquor (cooking residue), tall oil is obtained with a 1 to 4% yield with respect to wood.6 The composition of tall oil varies depending on the nature of the treated vegetable. Its iodine value is 120 to 150 (Table 1). Fatty acids and rosins (see below) are obtained individually by fractional distillation. Tall oil esters are used by inkmakers as alkyd resins components or as additives.3
Advances in Refining Technologies
Published in Deniz Uner, Advances in Refining Catalysis, 2017
James E. Rekoske, Hayim Abrevaya, Jeffery C. Bricker, Xin Zhu, Maureen Bricker
Triglycerides are molecules composed of three fatty acids bound to a glycerol backbone by an ester linkage.41 They are the fundamental unit of energy storage in living organisms. When the fatty acids are no longer linked to the glycerol backbone, they are called FFAs and are composed of a nonpolar hydrocarbon chain with a polar carboxylic acid functional group. Tall oil is primarily composed of FFAs and rosin acids, and is a commercial by-product of wood pulping. General structures for triglycerides and FFAs are shown in Figure 1.17. The shorthand notation used to describe fatty acids is carbon number followed by the number of carbon–carbon double bonds, also known as the degree of unsaturation, separated by a colon (carbon number:degree of unsaturation). The fatty acid carbon chain length and the degree of hydrogen saturation can vary significantly, usually depending on the source of the triglyceride. For example, coconut triglycerides are rich in lauric (12:0) and myristic (14:0) fatty acids, whereas soybean triglycerides are rich in oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2), and linolenic (18:3) fatty acids. As is apparent in these two examples, fatty acids are nearly exclusively found in nature with even-numbered carbon chains of approximately 8 to 22 carbon atoms. The combination of fatty acids that can make up a triglyceride varies widely among all organisms, and can even vary, to a lesser extent, within the same organism, depending on the season of the year, region of the world, or strain of organism. In general, most animal-derived triglycerides are more saturated than plant triglycerides. Table 1.7 shows nomenclature, carbon chain length, and degrees of unsaturation for several common fatty acids.41Table 1.8 shows common triglyceride oil compositions in terms of the concentration of fatty acids.42 The method used determines the fatty acid composition by capillary column gas-liquid chromatography and provides compositions in relative (area %) values.
Selective Separation of Coloring Impurities from Feldspar Ore by Innovative Single-stage Flotation
Published in Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 2022
The reagents with the brand names of CustoFloat 2404, CustoFloat 2408, and CustoFloat 2410 were supplied by Arkema-ArrMaz (USA) to investigate the effect of mixed collectors with different compositions. 2404 is an oil-based collector and formulated with tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) with anionic surfactants. 2408 and 2410 are water-based (emulsion) anionic-cationic mixed collectors and have a synergistic effect of chemisorption and hydrogen bonds adsorption on especially on mica and iron minerals. 2408 was formulated with pre-saponified fatty acids/surfactants and with a higher total amine value (TAV). 2410 was formulated mixed carbon chain-length fatty acids with lower TAV. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (Merck) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (Sigma-Aldrich) were used as pH modifiers. No frother was required during the experimental studies. Tap water was used for batch flotation tests.