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Introduction
Published in Venkatesan Rajinikanth, E. Priya, Hong Lin, Fuhua Lin, Hybrid Image Processing Methods for Medical Image Examination, 2021
Venkatesan Rajinikanth, E. Priya, Hong Lin, Fuhua Lin
Bones are a major components in human physiology that provide its shape and strength. Normally, it is formed by calcium minerals salts. A predefined bonding is executed with collagen fibres to get the definite shape and strength of the bone. All bone structures have an active tissue that continually repairs itself based on the need but this activeness decreases due to a variety of factors including age. In children and adults, new bone structure forms quickly compared to the elderly. Further, bone density also varies based on age and calcium level. One of the abnormalities related to the bone is osteoporosis, which causes a change in the physical structure of the bone leading to bones becoming weak and brittle due to vitamin and calcium deficiency. It is a common affliction of the elderly who don’t take sufficient minerals (calcium) required for their age. Previous literature confirms that osteoporosis affects more women compared to men. Early detection and proper diet can reduce the impact of the disease. Detection procedure involves recording and analysing the microstructures of the bone using an image-guided assessment. Figure 1.28 illustrates various views of the bone section using CT scan modality especially for bone disease assessment. Information regarding the presented images can be found in Radiopaedia database referred to in [61–64].
Effects of Mechanical Vibration on Bone Tissue
Published in Redha Taiar, Christiano Bittencourt Machado, Xavier Chiementin, Mario Bernardo-Filho, Whole Body Vibrations, 2019
Christiano Bittencourt Machado, Borja Sañudo, Christina Stark, Eckhard Schoenau
It is therefore crucial to distinguish between bone mass and physical bone density. Bone mass is equivalent to the weight of the bone, which depends on bone size. Physical bone density represents the mass of mineral relative to the outer bone volume and is independent of bone size. Interpretation of areal bone density is often difficult because it is somewhere between these two clear-cut definitions.
Biological Responses in Context
Published in Arthur T. Johnson, Biology for Engineers, 2019
Human bone strength has been found to be related directly to intermittent applied forces, similar to (not surprisingly!) forces generated during walking or running. Osteoporosis (weakening of the bones due to the resorption of bone material) in the elderly can cause bones to become brittle and break easily. Exercise is one way to reduce the effects of reduced bone density.
Chronological-hybrid optimization enabled deep learning for boundary segmentation and osteoporosis classification using femur bone
Published in The Imaging Science Journal, 2023
Kiran Dhanaji Kale, Bharati Ainapure, Sowjanya Nagulapati, Lata Sankpal, Babasaheb Sambhajirao Satpute
The femur bone is the strongest and longest bone in the human body and refers to the thigh bone. It is the most important part of the body that provides the body with the capability to stand and move. Further, it also provides support to several ligaments, tendons, muscles, and parts of the circulatory system. Osteoporosis or ‘porous bone’ is a complicated, multi-factorial, and long-lasting disease [1–4] resulting in weaker bones leading to a higher risk of fractures [5,6]. The wrist, spine, and hip fractures are caused by reduced bone density, resulting in reduced life quality and in certain cases, mortality [7]. Osteoporosis results in reduced bone density and fragility, thus affecting the bones badly and leading to increased fractures [8,9]. This process is labelled a silent epidemic’ as the diseases cannot be detected earlier before fracture, especially in the hip area [10,11]. Further, the fractures may impact the vertebrae leading to bone deformities, extreme back pain, and severe loss in height. Hence, the only way to deal with osteoporosis fractures is to detect the condition as early as possible [12,13]. Several techniques have been developed for detecting osteoporosis at the earliest. The most commonly used approach in identifying osteoporosis is measuring the Bone Mineral Density (BMD) of an individual with the help of Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA) [14,15]. While the BMD value is less than a threshold, it indicates that the individual has osteoporosis. Though this technique offers high accuracy, it is inefficient and highly expensive, restricting its usage in routine diagnosis [16].
A Survey on Osteoporosis Detection Methods with a Focus on X-ray and DEXA Images
Published in IETE Journal of Research, 2022
S.M. Nazia Fathima, R. Tamilselvi, M. Parisa Beham
To diagnose osteoporosis, a bone density scan is usually taken. Of which, DEXA is considered a common method that measures bone mineral content and bone size. DEXA uses an enhanced form of X-ray technology to produce the scan image. The DEXA images are generated by using X-ray beams at two different energy peaks are passed through the body, where the one peak is absorbed by the soft tissue and the other by the bone, which generates a two-dimensional image. The soft tissue amount is subtracted from the total area, which gives the bone mineral density (BMD). Though DEXA has advantages as simple, non-invasive, used a small amount of radiation, it has several limitations such as high cost, higher scan time, not widely available and expert personnel needed to perform the scan. It would, therefore, be useful if one could estimate the BMD from digital X-ray images itself to reduce time and expenses. Figure 2 shows the sample DEXA and X-ray images of the same subject. Few works had been carried out so far to measure the bone density directly by analysing the digitized X-ray. Texture analysis of X-rays has been proposed as it is easily available at low cost and efficient method for diagnosis of diseases. Fractal dimension is used to measure the BMD. This survey article summarized some of the works of image processing algorithms for pre-processing methods, segmentation and fracture detection, applied on X-ray and DEXA images for analysis of osteoporosis detection.
Lumbar bone stress injuries and risk factors in adolescent cricket fast bowlers
Published in Journal of Sports Sciences, 2022
Laura Keylock, Peter Alway, Paul Felton, Steve McCaig, Katherine Brooke-Wavell, Mark King, Nicholas Peirce
Site-specific low BMD in the lumbar spine has also been identified in lumbar stress fracture cases in senior fast bowlers (Alway, Peirce et al., 2019b), although this was assessed in bowlers who had previously been injured and was also statistically non-significant. It would be logical to suggest that low bone density may be implicated in the aetiology of bone stress injury as bone density is a large determinant of bone strength (Ammann & Rizzoli, 2003); thus, low bone density would decrease the mechanical competence of bone. However, bowlers who suffered LBSI in our study had non-significantly greater contralateral side BMD on average as well as greater vertebral area at the beginning of their year of injury. This could be due to the comparatively greater chronological age of the group or related to the increased bowling volume, intensity and muscular strength demands. Yet, this still may not have been sufficient to withstand fast bowling loading, suggesting that bowling workload may be dependent on lumbar BMD to prevent LBSI.