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Computing Devices
Published in David R. Martinez, Robert A. Bond, Vai M. Michael, High Performance Embedded Computing Handbook, 2018
Since the first 4-bit microprocessors, microprocessor word lengths have increased with decreasing feature sizes. Longer word lengths bring two principal benefits: improved arithmetic precision for numerical calculations and larger addressable memory spaces. During the 1980s, when 16-bit Intel processors were the workhorses of IBM PCs, MS-DOS was limited to accessing 640K of memory. While, initially, this seemed like more memory than could practically be used, eventually it became a severe limitation, handicapping the development of software applications for the IBM PC. Development of 32-bit Intel processors (the IA-32 architecture) increased the amount of directly addressable memory to 4 GB. The newest Intel processors are 64-bit machines. The Xeon and some Pentium processors employ Intel’s EM64T technology, which is a set of 64-bit extensions to the IA-32 architecture originally developed by AMD for the AMD64 processor. The EM64T machines are capable of addressing up to 1 TB of physical memory. Intel’s Itanium and Itanium-2 processors employ a fundamentally new 64-bit architecture (IA-64) and are capable of addressing up to 1 petabyte (1024 TB) of memory. In the PowerPC family, the newer G5 (fifth generation) processor, the IBM970 FX, is capable of addressing 4 TB of physical memory.
The Laboratory Use of Computers
Published in Grinberg Nelu, Rodriguez Sonia, Ewing’s Analytical Instrumentation Handbook, Fourth Edition, 2019
The word size (number of bits that the CPU and bus process per clock cycle) obviously affects the amount of data calculated per clock cycle, but it also affects the maximum amount of memory the system can support. A 32-bit system is limited to addressing 4 GB (232) of RAM. A 64-bit system is rapidly becoming the norm and can address a practically limitless amount of RAM (264 = 16 exabytes or 16 billion gigabytes). The user should not, however, expect that a 64-bit system will perform twice as fast as a 32-bit system. The additional 32 bits are not necessary for every calculation, and unless the operating system and application software are designed to use the 64-bit architecture they will continue to go unused.
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers: Past, Present, and Future
Published in Wasim Ahmed Khan, Ghulam Abbas, Khalid Rahman, Ghulam Hussain, Cedric Aimal Edwin, Functional Reverse Engineering of Machine Tools, 2019
Abdul Haseeb, Muhammad Faizan, Muhammad Faisal Khan, Muhammad Talha Iqrar
Considering the difference between microprocessors and microcontrollers in terms of processing power and memory, microprocessor is operated at much higher speed, so its clock speed is in gigahertz (GHz) range which varies from 1 to 4 GHz for the high-end processors. As a microprocessor has to run an operating system, the amount of memory is quite high, i.e. RAM which ranges from 512 MB to 32 GB and ROM ranges from 128 GB to 2 TB. The common peripheral interfaces which are seen in microprocessors are like USB, high-speed Ethernet, and universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART). While in case of microcontroller, the clock speed is in megahertz (MHz) range which varies from 1 to 300 MHz in high-end microcontrollers. As these microcontrollers are defined for a specific task, the amount of memory that is required by them is quite less. Its range of RAM is from 2 to 256 KB and its range of flash memory or program memory is 32 KB to 2 MB. The common peripheral interfaces which one can find inside the microcontroller are like inter-integrated circuit (I2C), SPI, and UART. Basically, all these are the serial interfaces which user finds in modern-day microcontrollers. In comparison to microcontrollers, the modern-day microprocessors are either 32-bit or 64-bit microprocessors. A 32-bit microprocessor means a microprocessor that can handle 32 bits of binary data at the same time. Similarly, a 64-bit microprocessor can handle 64 bits of data at the same time. In case of 64-bit microprocessor, the address bus and data buses are of 64 bits. Similarly, in the case of 32-bit microprocessor, the address and data buses are of 32 bits. In comparison to microprocessors, modern-day microcontrollers are either 8-bit, 16-bit, or 32-bit microcontrollers; the amount of data which can be handled by a microprocessor in a single cycle is higher than that handled by the microcontrollers.
COTS software integration for simulation optimization coupling: case of ARENA and CPLEX products
Published in International Journal of Modelling and Simulation, 2019
Valeria Borodin, Jean Bourtembourg, Faicel Hnaien, Nacima Labadie
To begin with, let us present the versions of the considered software products: ARENA: as of June 2014, ARENA is in version 14.7. Note that, it is a 32-bit Windows desktop application that also runs on 64-bit operating systems.CPLEX: since January 2014, its stable release is 12.6.