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Mechanical Properties of Metals and Alloys
Published in Yip-Wah Chung, Monica Kapoor, Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering, 2022
The growth of tin whiskers is an annoying problem in electronics. Tin has been used as a solder joint material. Over time, whiskers are observed to grow from the tin surface that can result in short-circuiting of the electronics, thus creating reliability problems. This is especially serious for electronics used in unmanned space vehicles such as satellites, in which repair cannot be done easily. Researchers speculated the cause to be some sort of creep phenomenon, given that tin has a low melting temperature. Oxygen appears to play an important role. Oxidation of tin to form tin oxide involves a volume expansion, thus creating compressive stress that drives the formation of tin whiskers. We may consider this phenomenon to be oxidation-induced creep. Whisker growth can therefore be suppressed or eliminated by the removal of oxygen from the environment.
3 Nanowires Formation by High Temperature Oxidation of Iron and Their Potential Use to Remove Cr(VI) Ions
Published in Zainovia Lockman, 1-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 2018
Subagja Toto Rahmat, Monna Rozana, Tan Wai Kian, Go Kawamura, Atsunori Matsuda, Zainovia Lockman
To produce only α-Fe2O3 nanowires, oxidation temperatures can be varied. 400°C–800°C is a range in which nanowires have been observed. We have observed however that, for 2 hours oxidation in dry air condition the formation of nanowires can be seen at 400°C to 600°C (Figure 5.7a–c) but the structure disappears at 700°C (Figure 5.7d) and emerges again at 800°C (Figure 5.7e). Reports on the formation of iron oxide “blades” or “whiskers” by thermal oxidation are few and perhaps the first comprehensive study was performed by Takagi in 1957. Takagi suggested several factors which affect the growth of the whiskers: atmosphere, temperature and surface preparation. The optimum condition for whisker structure to grow is at temperatures ranging from 400°C to 850°C in oxygen atmosphere (compared to air) and the surface preparation must be done by electropolishing the iron foil (Takagi, 1957). Following this work, several other reports emerged to explain how the whiskers formed and grow on the surface of the iron foil as shown in Table 5.2. No applications on such whiskers were reported in early literature. Upon entering the era of nanotechnology (around late 1990s), the term whiskers somehow slowly disappeared and the microstructure formed has been termed “nanowires.” Nanowires are, by definition, conducting fibers with diameter in nanoscale (as described in Chapter 1).
Plating of Electrical Equipment
Published in Bella H. Chudnovsky, Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution, 2017
The most serious hazard posed by metal whiskers is a metal vapor arc, in which the whisker vaporizes into a cluster of extremely conductive metal ions capable of carrying hundreds of amperes of current. Metal whiskers can also cause voltage to jump across electrical circuitry and cause short circuits. The history of these failures began during WWII, when cadmium whiskers were found in electrical equipment.
The effect of different post-electroplating surface modification treatments on tin whisker growth
Published in Transactions of the IMF, 2019
D. M. Haspel, M. A. Ashworth, G. D. Wilcox, X. Bao, R. J. Mortimer
One of the most significant problems is the unpredictability of whisker growth and their varying incubation periods, which causes concern with regards to the long-term reliability of electronic components.4 Moreover, there is, currently, no one accepted whisker growth mechanism; though there are a number of theories and some commonly agreed factors that affect whisker growth.1,5,6