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>Introduction
Published in Frank Collins, Frédéric Blin, Ageing of Infrastructure, 2018
Historically, built infrastructure has played a key role since ancient times. Most noticeable are the pyramids of Giza (Nell and Ruggles, 2014), arched bridges, elevated roads and aqueducts across valleys. Roman aqueducts carried water over long distances in order to provide a crowded urban population with relatively safe, potable water and sewers (Wolfram and Lorenz, 2016); transport networks (Carreras and de Soto, 2013) and ancient Mediterranean harbours (Marriner and Morhange, 2007). All infrastructure ages, although in the ancient context it must be born in mind that historic infrastructure is currently maintained with considerable conservation effort and cost (Figure 1.2).
Vitruvius and the elevated aqueducts
Published in Ted Ruddock, Masonry Bridges, Viaducts and Aqueducts, 2017
The ancient aqueducts were magnificent. Their channels had been elevated on boldly constructed arcades, which extended high above the plains, to conduct water flowing by gravity from distant hills into the cities and towns. Even the ruins are still impressive (Fig. I).1 In some cities, mainly in Spain, Roman aqueducts still operate. In Rome itself, the Porta Maggiore is still intact and it is possible to visualize how the aqueducts built at different times converged and extended over or near or under its arches (Fig. 2).
Historical development of the science of water
Published in Amithirigala Widhanelage Jayawardena, Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, Hydrology and Water Resources for Civil Engineers, 2021
Amithirigala Widhanelage Jayawardena
The development of fluid mechanics started with the contributions made by Archimedes (285–212 BC), who postulated the well-known Archimedes principle of buoyancy. This principle was applied to determine the gold content of the crown of King Hiero I of Greece. Archimedes is also credited for the development of the Archimedes Screw, which has been used to lift water from a low level to a higher level. At about the same time, the Romans built an extensive network, better known as Roman aqueducts, to transport fresh water from snowmelt Alps to cities in the valleys below. These include the first aqueduct, the ‘Aqua Appia’, built in 312 BC and the last, ‘Aqua Alexandrina’ built in 226 AD. Over a period of 500 years, 11 aqueducts, some below ground surface and some elevated have been built. Roman aqueducts consisted of infiltration galleries, steep chutes or drop shafts, settling tanks, tunnels, covered trenches, bridges to support the aqueduct, siphons and a distribution system at the destination. Pre-historic developments of irrigation canals also have taken place in Mexico circa 500 BC. Other significant waterworks of the time include the use of water wheels to power mills in Greece, the invention of the Egyptian water wheel known as Noria, the installation of a weather vane in Acropolis in Greece, the invention of conical valve and the introduction of early automatic controls in fluid mechanics by Banu Mūsā (circa 800–860) in Iran, the application of experimental scientific methods to fluid statics such as determining the specific weights by Abu Rayhan Biruni (circa 973–1048) in Iran, and the contributions by Al-Khazini (circa 1115–1130), also in Iran.
The colors of the Fontana di Trevi: an analytical approach
Published in International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 2018
Mauro F. La Russa, Michela Ricca, Anna Maria Cerioni, Maria Grazia Chilosi, Valeria Comite, Marina De Santis, Natalia Rovella, Silvestro A. Ruffolo
In this article, we dealt with some diagnostic analysis carried out on the Fontana di Trevi in Rome (Italy), which is one of the most famous monuments in the world. It is a fountain fed by the aqua Virgo, the only one Roman aqueduct still in service. The whole structure is set against the façade of Palazzo Poli. The monument was built between 1732 and 1762 by the Roman architect Nicola Salvi (V.V.A.A. Fontana di Trevi. La Storia, Il Restauro, ed 1991). The whole monument has three architectural elements: a façade made mainly of travertine; statues and relieves made of marble; a cliff made of travertine and mortars (Laurenzi Tabasso 1991; Rockwell 1991). The fountain, shaped like a triumphal arch with a deep central dome, slopes down to the broad basin with a large cliff, enlivened by sculptural representation of many plants and the spectacular water slide. The composition is dominated by the colossal statue of Oceanus, the personification of natural forces, which appears on a shell-shaped chariot pulled by two horses led by tritons, symbolizing the two natural realities: the wild (the angry horse) and ordered (the placid horse). In the left part of the arch, there is the statue of Abundance holding the horn of plenty. Above her there is a bas-relief showing Agrippa commanding his generals to build the aqueduct. On the right side, there is the statue of Health and above her, there is a relief showing a Virgin Lady indicating the source of water. A previous restoration work (1989–1991) has been well documented (V.V.A.A. Fontana di Trevi. La Storia, Il Restauro, ed 1991), while for former interventions information are quite scarce.