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Structures
Published in Thomas M. Nordlund, Peter M. Hoffmann, Quantitative Understanding of Biosystems, 2019
Thomas M. Nordlund, Peter M. Hoffmann
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is single stranded and carries information about a protein sequence to the ribosomes, the protein synthesis factories in the cell. Every three nucleotides (a codon) correspond to one amino acid, as we noted earlier. In eukaryotic cells, a precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) is first transcribed from DNA in the cell nucleus and is processed to mature mRNA by removal of introns—noncoding sections of the pre-mRNA. The mRNA is then transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it is bound to ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein (Chapter 6), and translated into its corresponding protein form with the help of tRNA. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus and cytoplasm compartments and mRNA will bind to the ribosome while it is being transcribed from DNA.
Biomolecular Processing and Molecular Electronics
Published in Sergey Edward Lyshevski, Molecular Electronics, Circuits, and Processing Platforms, 2018
In nucleic acids, monomers are four types of nucleotides that differ in their nitrogenous bases. Genes are typically hundreds or thousands nucleotides long, and each gene has a specific sequence of nitrogenous bases. A protein also has monomers arranged in a particular linear order, but its monomers consist of 20 amino acids. Transcription and translation processes (steps) are involved: Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA. Agene’fs unique sequence ofDNAnucleotides provides a template for assembling a unique sequence of RNA nucleotides. The resulting RNA molecule (called the messenger RNA and denoted as mRNA) is a transcript of the gene’s protein-building instructions. Thus, the function of mRNA is to transcript a genetic code from the DNA to the protein-synthesis machinery of the cell. Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide that occurs under the direction of mRNA. The cell must translate the base sequence of an mRNA molecule into the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. The sites of translation are ribosomes, with many enzymes and other agents facilitating the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains. The sequence chain is: DNA → RNA → protein.
Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics in Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology
Published in Nduka Okafor, Benedict C. Okeke, Modern Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2017
Nduka Okafor, Benedict C. Okeke
The mRNA is transcribed from one strand of the DNA of the gene; it is translated at the ribosome into a polypeptide sequence. Translation is the synthesis of protein from amino acids on a template of messenger RNA in association with a ribosome. The bases on mRNA code for amino acids in triplets or codons; that is three bases code for an amino acid. Sometimes, different triplet bases may code for the same amino acid. Thus, the amino acid glycine is coded for by four different codons: GGU, GGC, GGA, and GGG. There are 64 different codons; three of these UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons and end the process of translation. The remaining 61 codons code for the amino acids in proteins (Table 3.1). Translation of the message generally begins at AUG, which also codes for methionine. For AUG to act as a start codon, it must be preceded by a ribosome binding site. If that is not the case, it simply codes for methionine.
Block catiomers with flanking hydrolyzable tyrosinate groups enhance in vivo mRNA delivery via π–π stacking-assisted micellar assembly
Published in Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2023
Wenqian Yang, Takuya Miyazaki, Yasuhiro Nakagawa, Eger Boonstra, Keita Masuda, Yuki Nakashima, Pengwen Chen, Lucas Mixich, Kevin Barthelmes, Akira Matsumoto, Peng Mi, Satoshi Uchida, Horacio Cabral
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is at the center of many innovative genetic treatments due to its ability to generate a variety of therapeutic proteins in target cells [1]. This interest is driven by mRNA’s predictable expression profile, favorable safety characteristics, ability to express protein in many cell types (even non-dividing cells) [2], simple preparation, and flexible application [3]. Moreover, the recent approvals of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines confirmed the clinical applicability of mRNA [4,5]. However, in applications other than vaccines, the immunostimulatory properties of mRNA, its fragility in physiological environments and its inability to cross the cellular membrane have limited its implementation [3,6]. Thus, the development of safe and effective carriers is crucial to overcome the challenges faced by mRNA in further clinical applications [7].