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Vessels and Tanks
Published in Siddhartha Mukherjee, Process Engineering and Plant Design, 2021
Reflux drums are process vessels used to store overhead products from distillation columns (Figure 6.6). They provide one or more of the following functions [11]:Surge volume to protect the column reflux pump.Smoothing out of fluctuations of distillate product going to downstream unit or to reflux.Separation of vapor from liquid.Settling time for separating the water from the hydrocarbon phase.
Nanosensor Laboratory
Published in Vinod Kumar Khanna, Nanosensors, 2021
Method: (i) An aliquot (20 mL) of an aqueous solution of potassium bitartrate (0.5 wt%) is brought to reflux (~100°C) while stirring, and 20 mL of an aqueous solution of H2PtCl6 (1.0 mM), containing the designated amount of PVP, PEG, or TDPC, is added quickly. Reflux means to boil a liquid in a vessel attached to a condenser so that the vapors continuously condense for reboiling; (ii) the concentrations of PVP, PEG, and TDPC vary (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 4.0 wt% (for PVP or PEG) and 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 4.0 mM (for TDPC). This variation is aimed at controlling the size as well as the size distribution of Pt nanoparticles; (iii) brown-colored solutions are obtained after reflux of 20 minutes and 3–24 hours in the presence of PEG and PVP, respectively. The color of the ensuing Pt colloid solutions changes from brown to light brown with increasing concentration ratio of TDPC to H2PtCl6.
Crude Oil Refining—Part 1
Published in Hussein K. Abdel-Aal, Economic Analysis of Oil and Gas Engineering Operations, 2021
It is well established that if the reflux ratio is increased from its minimum value, Rm, the number of plates would be decreased to attain the same desired separation. This means lower fixed costs for the column. The other extreme limit for the reflux could be reached by further increase in R with corresponding decrease in the number of trays until the total reflux, Rt, is reached (case of minimum number of trays, Nm). Attention is now directed to the effect on the diameter of the column of increasing the reflux ratio, that is, increasing vapor load.
Synthesis and characterization of supported heteropoly acid: Efficient solid acid catalyst for glycerol esterification to produce biofuel additives
Published in Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry, 2020
Subhash Magar, Govindraj T. Mohanraj, Sumit Kumar Jana, Chandrashekhar V. Rode
Glycerol esterification with acetic acid was carried out in a 100 ml round bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser. In the esterification experiments, substrate ratio of 1:20 was used in which glycerol (0.92 g) and acetic acid (12 g) were added and heated up to the desired temperature for 10 min to withdraw the initial sample. The catalyst (0.250 g, 27.17 wt%) was then added and the reaction was carried out at 110 °C for 6 h. After completion of the reaction, it was cooled to 25 °C. The progress of the reaction was monitored by withdrawing liquid samples at specific time intervals and were analyzed by gas chromatography using GC (Varian 3600) equipped with a capillary column (HP-FFAP 30 m,0.53 mm,1μm) having a stationary phase of polyethylene glycol and FID detector. GC conditions were: Injection temperature; 300 °C, column temperature ramped from 40 to 240 °C, detector temperature; 150 °C and carrier gas (N2; 30 bars).
Liquid fuel synthesis from Leonotis nepetifolia seeds through in-situ transesterification method
Published in Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2020
Sangeeta D Benni, Ravindra S Munnolli, Kariyappa S Katagi, Nikhil S Kadam, Mahesh C Akki
As the acid value obtained is 0.02 mg KOH/g oil, the pre-esterification step is avoided (Knothe, de Castro Ellenita, and Razon 2015). 100 mL oil extracted from seed by the above-described process is poured into a round bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser. The methanol to seed oil taken in 1:6 molar ratios and 1% (w/w) KOH catalyst dissolved in alcohol is mixed thoroughly with oil in the flask at 60°C and kept stirred for 100 minutes. Then, the reaction mixture is transferred in the separating funnel and allowed to stand overnight. The lower glycerol rich aqueous layer along with alcohol is drained out (Knothe, de Castro Ellenita, and Razon 2015). The upper organic layer consisting of fatty acid methyl esters of Leonotis nepetifolia seed oil (or LNME) along with entrapped alcohol and traces of catalyst is washed thoroughly with warm-deionized water. The product thus obtained is the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters or biodiesel. This conventional oil transesterification is carried out to compare the yield obtained by in-situ transesterification.
Technical valorisation of spent coffee grounds and food waste using sulphuric acid immobilised on silica
Published in Biofuels, 2020
A CE-440 Elemental Analyser, supplied by Exeter Analytical Inc., USA, was used for the CHN analysis of food waste and spent coffee grounds. Lipid from food waste and oil from spent coffee grounds were extracted and purified using modified methods reported by Karmee et al., Kondamudi et al. and Yang et al. [12,14,21]. Prior to the reaction, food waste lipid and coffee oil were dried thoroughly to remove the residual water. Transesterification reactions were performed using a 25-mL two-necked round-bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser. Conversion of feedstock to FAMEs was quantitatively determined by 1H Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [2,12,27,28]. All the 1H NMR spectra were recorded with a 400-MHz Bruker instrument using CDCl3–TMS as a solvent.