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Toxicology
Published in Martin B., S.Z., of Industrial Hygiene, 2018
Deferrioxamine is the chelating agent of choice in the treatment of iron poisoning. It complexes with iron ions to form ferrioxamine, which is then excreted via the kidney; 1 gram of deferrioxamine binds 85 mg of iron.
Biosensing and Cancer Treatment with Magnetic Nanoparticles
Published in Li Jun, Wu Nianqiang, Biosensors Based on Nanomaterials and Nanodevices, 2017
Stefan Bossmann, Viktor Chikan, Raj Kumar Dani
Iron toxicity in humans becomes noticeable at doses above 10–20 mg kg–2 of iron. Ingestions of more than 50 mg kg–2 of iron are associated with severe toxicity. Typical symptoms of iron poisoning are metabolic acidosis and organ damage (particularly brain and liver). Iron(II/III) leads to a higher concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and therefore free radicals in the cells, causing oxidative stress, inflammation, and finally damage to proteins, membranes, and DNA.68 Liver failure and massive shock syndrome occur frequently in cases of iron poisoning. It is noteworthy that right after the injection of a contrast agent the patient has received an overdose of iron!69 Iron and iron oxide NPs possessing a hydrodynamic radius smaller than 5 nm can be excreted via the renal pathway.70 Excess iron can also be excreted from the liver as bile.71 The most important factors determining the toxicity of iron-containing NPs are their size and their surface coating. Without an effective surface coating, iron-containing NPs bio-corrode within 24 h within the human body, thus releasing their iron content. The surface coating of (magnetic) NPs has a great influence on their pharmacokinetics. Macrophages and proliferating cells are able to internalize NPs when they are smaller than 200 nm.72 The uptake mechanism in macrophages is receptor-mediated endocytosis. In proliferating cells, e.g., tumor cells, active internalization takes place, where the uptake occurs by fluid phase endocytosis in the G1 cell cycle phase.68 The dependence of cellular uptake on NP size is somewhat counterintuitive: NPs that are smaller than 50 nm have the tendency to cluster on the cells’ surfaces. The resulting structures are big enough to trigger endocytosis, whereas NPs that are larger than 100 nm are bound as single NPs and, therefore, are not taken up as fast, because the signal cascade leading to the wrapping of the cell membrane around the NP cluster will not occur.73 NPs with a size of 10 to 180 nm are taken up by phagocytotic cells such as Kupffer cells in the liver and macrophages but also microglia in the brain. Their primary elimination from the blood circulation occurs in the reticuloendothelial system.74
Effect of sub-chronic ferrous sulfate treatment on motor skills, hematological and biochemical parameters in rats
Published in Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health, 2019
Mohamed Ammari, Miryam Elferchichi, Haifa Othman, Mohsen Sakly, Hafedh Abdelmelek
Iron supplements where iron exists as ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) or ferrous gluconate (C12H22FeO14) and multivitamins with iron and carbonyl iron (an iron plus carbon monoxide combination) can cause iron overload if used excessively (iron poisoning). This iron intake will usually not result in hemosiderosis or hemochromatosis if used in excess over a short period but may cause some acute symptoms of iron poisoning. Long-term intake of excessive iron supplements, however, will result in hemosiderosis (iron overload) which may then be followed by hemochromatosis (iron toxicity). Iron poisoning is one of the most common types of poisoning in children which may lead to death.15 Accidental ingestion is common because iron containing compounds are readily available, brightly colored, often sugar coated, and frequently considered harmless vitamins by parents.16 Iron supplements are typically used to treat anemia. Modalities include: diet, parasite control,17 vitamin A, riboflavin (B2),18 vitamin C (for absorption), folate (B9), vitamin B12, and multivitamin–multimineral supplements with or without iron.