China
Africa
Explore chapters and articles related to this topic
Introduction to PV Systems
Published in Roger Messenger, Homayoon “Amir” Abtahi, Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, 2017
Roger Messenger, Homayoon “Amir” Abtahi
Aside from using batteries to store energy produced by PV systems, it is also possible to use hydrogen as a storage medium [10]. The advantage of using hydrogen for energy storage is when it is desired to recover the stored energy, the hydrogen is reacted with oxygen to form water, which is an exothermic reaction that does not have any carbon byproducts. If the hydrogen is burned in air to produce steam to turn a turbine to generate electricity, water is still produced as the byproduct, with a relatively minimal amount of nitrogen oxides. In a fuel cell, hydrogen combines with oxygen to produce water, electricity, and heat. Of course, the hydrogen does not need to be used to produce electricity. It can also be used as an engine fuel to power a vehicle, such as an automobile, bus, or space shuttle. Indirectly, the result is a solar-powered vehicle that stores energy in hydrogen rather than in batteries. The engineering community has not yet developed a battery-powered, space shuttle booster engine.
Energy
Published in A.P.H. Peters, Concise Chemical Thermodynamics, 2010
However, we must be aware that the types of figures from Tables 1.4 and 1.5 are discussed frequently worldwide and can change any moment. For example, 50 years ago in Slochteren, The Netherlands, one of the biggest conventional natural gas fields in the world was discovered with an estimated total amount of 2800 billion m3 gas. In 2009, there was 1345 billion m3 left, 33 billion m3 more than was estimated in 2008. Conventional gas is easy to explore because it is enclosed in porous sand layers. From new geological studies in 2009, it appears that there is a total amount of approximately 500,000 billion m3 of nonconventional gas in The Netherlands that is enclosed in micropores or is chemically or physically bonded to clay layers or coal, 200 times more than conventional amounts of gas! The big question is, “How to get to it?” Whether this gas is extractable depends on the success of new technologies and economical factors. Even if we find more fossil fuels and they are extractable, the future belongs to renewable energy.
Minerals Industries
Published in Charles E. Baukal, Industrial Combustion Pollution and Control, 2003
Cement is manufactured in five kiln types: wet process, dry process, preheater, precalciner, and semidry process. The U.S. EPA defines a calciner as “equipment used to remove combined (chemically bound) water and/or gases from mineral material through direct or indirect heating” [47]. While the materials are the same in each case, the moisture content and processing techniques differ. Wet kilns are longer to dry the higher moisture content mixture. The kiln is an inclined refractory-lined cylinder that slowly rotates to help convey the material from the inlet to the outlet (see Fig. 14.27). A very large burner is located at the exit end of the kiln, which makes the process counter-current where the raw materials flow in one direction and the combustion products flow in the opposite direction. The fuel may be coal, oil, or natural gas, depending on the availability and costs of each. The primary combustion air going through the burner is supplied by a blower while the remaining air comes from the clinker cooler at the exit end of the kiln.
Updated assessment of occupational safety and health hazards of climate change
Published in Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 2023
P. A. Schulte, B. L. Jacklitsch, A. Bhattacharya, H. Chun, N. Edwards, K. C. Elliott, M. A. Flynn, R. Guerin, L. Hodson, J. M. Lincoln, K. L. MacMahon, S. Pendergrass, J. Siven, J. Vietas
Solar photovoltaic systems and wind turbines are likely to be a major replacement for fossil fuels in the future. Various methods of manufacturing photovoltaic materials involve a variety of different materials, most of which are potentially toxic or hazardous (National Research Council 2010). Although most of these chemicals have been involved in a fair amount of basic toxicological research (Bakhiyi et al. 2014), very little quantitative or qualitative risk assessment research has been done on the occupational health issues arising during the mining of component materials, manufacturing, and recycling processes (Bradbrook et al. 2013; Bakhiyi et al. 2014). Furthermore, several physical and electrical hazards are associated with the installation and maintenance of photovoltaic systems, including falls and manual-handling concerns, as well as heat stress. However, little data are available for quantifying the rates at which these risks directly affect installers (Duroha et al. 2020).
Experimental investigation of B20 blend in the DI diesel engine with a modification of smaller orifice injection nozzle and after treatment systems (EGR+DPF)
Published in International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2022
M. Vijay Kumar, S. Sudhakara Reddy, K. Mallikarjuna
Fuel is a substance that, on combustion, produces a large amount of heat. The wood, coal, kerosene, oil gas petrol, etc. are some of the fuels used commonly. The fuel mainly contains hydrogen and carbon. During the combustion process, hydrogen and carbons are oxidised to new compounds, such as NOx, CO, HC, H2O and CO2, with the discharge of heat energy. The new compounds have less energy than those of reactants. So, the energy released during the combustion process is the difference in the energy of the reactants (fuel) and that of the products formed. The important sources of fuels are coal, petroleum oils, etc. which are decreasing day-by-day due to the rapid industrialisation. These fuels are stored in the earth's crust and are generally called fossil fuels. Here, due to the shortage of fossil fuels, many scientists and researchers are focusing their research on the analysis of the availability and potential further use of alternative fuels. The most feasible way to meet this growing requirement is by replacing these fossil fuels by making use of renewable alternative fuels. The sources of biodiesel are mainly from four categories of common feedstock, as shown in Table 1.
Effect of Al2O3 nano-additives on the performance and emission characteristics of jatropha and pongamia methyl esters in compression ignition engine
Published in International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2020
A. Prabhu, B. Kartheek Reddy, M. Nagappan, N. Bharath
A fuel is defined as a substance that reacts with materials to release chemical or nuclear energy. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily petroleum and coal. It forms from the fossilised remains of organic debris exposure to high pressure in the absence of oxygen beneath the earth cover over several million years. Fossil fuels are considered as conventional and non-renewable sources. These are depleting at a very faster rate because of continuous usage and the use of fossil fuels in any form pose environmental issues. Many expert reports are indicating that the existing fossil fuel reserves will last soon (Singh and Singh 2010; Vinoth Kanna, Devaraj, and Subramani 2018). To reduce pollution, to deal with global warming, to save cost involved in the production, to reuse waste and finally to have more choices alternate fuels are established. Biofuels are such kind of alternate source of energy produced from modern biological processes. Biofuels are resulted from plants or from agricultural, industrial wastes and domestic wastes. Biodiesel is one of those biofuels which are considered as prominent alternate fuel for diesel. Biodiesel can be derived from plant oils and animal fats. Plant oils may be edible or non-edible. There are many methods used to convert the raw plant oil into biodiesel (Meher, Vidyasagar, and Naik 2006; Prabhu, Venkata Ramanan, and Jayaprabakar 2018; Sabari Girish, Vijayakothandaraman, and Prabhu 2018).