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A Biorefinery Approach to Improve the Sustainability of the South African Sugar Industry: An Assessment of Selected Scenarios
Published in Linda Godfrey, Johann F Görgens, Henry Roman, Opportunities for Biomass and Organic Waste Valorisation, 2020
K Haigh, MA Mandegari, S Farzad, AG Dafal, JF Görgens
In the present work, ethanol is used as it is available in an integrated biorefinery from lignocellulosic biomass. Lactic acid is first reacted with ethanol to form a more volatile ethyl lactate, which can be more easily purified by distillation as the top product, while the heavy organic acids and impurities are collected as the bottom product. The ethyl lactate is then hydrolysed in a second reactive distillation column where lactic acid is collected at the bottom, while ethanol and water is produced at the top. Ethanol will be separated from water by normal distillation and recycled back to the esterification unit. Although the ethanol and lactic acid production processes are different, the evaporation, WWT, boiler and power generation units are integrated to handle streams of both processes.
Examples in Synthesis, Analysis, Design, and Fabrication of MEMS
Published in Sergey Edward Lyshevski, Nano- and Micro-Electromechanical Systems, 2018
PMMA positive resists are based on special grades of polymethyl methacrylate designed to provide high contrast, high resolution for e-beam, deep UV (220–250 nm), and x-ray lithographic processes. Standard PMMA resist has 495,000 and 950,000 molecular weights (MW) in a wide range of film thicknesses formulated in chlorobenzene, or the safer solvent anisole. However, 50,000, 100,000, 200,000 and 2.2 million MW are available. Copolymer resists are based on a mixture of PMMA and methacrylic acid (usually from 8% to 20%). Copolymer MMA can be used in combination with PMMA in bilayer lift-off resist processes where independent control of size and shape of each resist layer is needed. Standard copolymer resists are formulated in the safer solvent ethyl lactate and are available in a wide range of film thicknesses.
Cellulose Nitrate
Published in Allan F. M. Barton, and Solubility Parameters, 2018
Fuchs and Suhr29 compiled information, including water as a solvent for 6.8% nitrogen material. For 10.5 to 12% N, solvents were reported as: lower alcohols, acetone, amyl acetate, ethylene glycol ethers, glacial acetic acid, and alcohol/diethyl ether. Nonsolvents included higher alcohols, higher carboxylic acids, higher ketones, and tricresyl phosphate. In the case of 12.7% nitrogen, solvents were halogenated hydrocarbons, acetone, methyl amyl ketone, cylcohexanone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, ethyl butyrate, ethyl lactate, ethylene glycol ether acetates, ethylene carbonate, furan derivatives, nitrobenzene, and ethanol/diethyl ether. Aromatic hydrocarbons and higher alcohols caused swelling; nonsolvents were aliphatic hydrocarbons, lower alcohols, ethylene glycol, diethyl ether, dilute carboxylic acids, and water.
Aqueous biphasic systems based on ethyl lactate: Molecular interactions and modelling
Published in Chemical Engineering Communications, 2023
Stephen D. Worrall, Jiawei Wang, Vesna Najdanovic-Visak
Recently, new ABS based on ethyl lactate and salts emerged as an efficient tool to recover biomolecules such as antibiotics (Zakrzewska et al. 2021], amino acids (Kamalanathan et al. 2018a), antioxidants and flavonoids (Velho et al. 2020) from their aqueous solutions. Ethyl lactate is an environmentally friendly solvent produced from biorenewable chemicals, ethanol and lactic acid. Thus, it is identified as a green solvent in the GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) solvent selection guide (Henderson et al. 2011) with many attractive properties. It possesses low volatility and viscosity, is biodegradable and is not corrosive or carcinogenic. Due to its very low toxicity, ethyl lactate has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as generally recognized as safe for direct addition to food for human consumption (FDA, Title 21, 2020).
Optimization of simultaneous carotenes and vitamin E (tocols) extraction from crude palm olein using response surface methodology
Published in Chemical Engineering Communications, 2018
Yin Leng Kua, Suyin Gan, Andrew Morris, Hoon Kiat Ng
During physical crude palm oil refining process, carotenes are first partially removed by adsorption on activated bleaching earth, followed by high temperature steam deodorization which destroys the chromogenic properties of the remaining carotenes to produce a light yellow palm oil. Although tocols are more thermally stable than carotenes, near to 50% of the tocols will be stripped off along with free fatty acids (FFAs), sterols, and squalene into palm fatty acid distillate during the deodorization step. Thus, there is a need to recover these phytonutrients from crude palm oil before further refining. As carotenes and tocols are used as food supplements or fortifiers, the use of nontoxic, noncorrosive, and noncarcinogenic extraction solvents which are safe for human consumption is crucial. Whilst commonly used petrochemical solvents are known to pose a certain degree of toxicity, ethyl lactate (EL) is a suitable candidate solvent because it is novel, green and safe. It is produced from carbohydrate feedstock from corn and soybean industries, and is present naturally in foods such as wine, beer, chicken, and fruits. EL is a nonozone depleting and nonhazardous air pollutant, and it biodegrades into harmless compounds, such as carbon dioxide and water. The US environmental protection agency approved the solvent as a significant new alternatives policy program solvent while US food and drug administration has approved its direct use in food and pharmaceutical products. It is generally recognized as a safe solvent (Pereira et al., 2011). EL exerts polarity in the range of acetonitrile and n-hexane. It is capable of forming intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonding (Aparicio et al., 2008). Additionally, it has the ability to form Van der Waals interactions in oils (Drapeau et al., 2009). As a result, EL can dissolve in both aqueous and hydrocarbon environments, and is capable of extracting compounds with a wide range of polarity (Strati and Oreopoulou, 2011). EL has been reported to extract various nutraceutical compounds mostly from solid matrices (Kua et al., 2016) while limited papers have reported its potential to recover compounds directly from oil samples (Hernández et al., 2011; Vicente et al., 2011).