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Overhead Lines
Published in T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2018
Copper has very low resistivity and is widely used as a power conductor, although its use as an overhead conductor has become rare because copper is heavier and more expensive than aluminum. It has significantly lower resistance than aluminum by volume—a copper conductor has equivalent ampacity (resistance) of an aluminum conductor that is two AWG sizes larger. Copper has very good resistance to corrosion. It melts at 1083°C, starts to anneal at about 100°C, and anneals most rapidly between 200°C and 325°C (this range depends on the presence of impurities and amount of hardening). When copper anneals, it softens and loses tensile strength.
Substation Grounding
Published in John D. McDonald, Electric Power Substations Engineering, 2017
Copper is a common material used for grounding. Copper conductors, in addition to their high conductivity, have the advantage of being resistant to most underground corrosion because copper is cathodic with respect to most other metals that are likely to be buried in the vicinity. Copper-clad steel is usually used for ground rods and occasionally for grid conductors, especially where theft is a problem. Use of copper, or to a lesser degree copper-clad steel, therefore assures that the integrity of an underground network will be maintained for years, so long as the conductors are of an adequate size and not damaged and the soil conditions are not corrosive to the material used. Aluminum is used for ground grids less frequently. Though at first glance the use of aluminum would be a natural choice for GIS equipment with enclosures made of aluminum or aluminum alloys, there are several disadvantages to consider: Aluminum can corrode in certain soils. The layer of corroded aluminum material is nonconductive for all practical grounding purposes.Gradual corrosion caused by alternating currents can also be a problem under certain conditions.
Circuit Variables and Elements
Published in Nassir H. Sabah, Electric Circuits and Signals, 2017
A copper conductor of 1.8 mm diameter has a current rating, or current-carrying capacity (also known as ampacity) of about 18 A and a resistance of 6.6 mΩ/m at room temperature. If a 50 m length of this wire is used in an electrical installation, and is carrying 15 A, it is required to determine: (a) the heat generated by the wire and (b) the voltage drop along the wire.
An experimental study on the thermal behavior of aluminum thermoelectric system integrated with engine exhaust
Published in Experimental Heat Transfer, 2021
Dhruv Raj Karana, Rashmi Rekha Sahoo
The earliest attempts of thermodynamic analysis on thermoelectric generators were performed by Bejan et al. [19]. Later, Lampinen et al. [20] performed a similar analysis and derived the expression for efficiency considering Thomson’s effect. The thermoelectric generator was considered to be a heat engine working between two heat reservoirs. A thermoelectric generator is a semiconductor device consisting of two legs joined by a copper conductor. The geometry of the legs plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency of the device. Traditionally, second law analysis was performed on thermoelectric generators with flat plate leg geometry [21, 22]. But recently new leg geometries have been explored. Sahin et al. [23] performed a thermodynamic analysis on the tapered leg geometry and astrong relation between device efficiency and leg geometry was observed. Ali et al. [24]proposed a novel annular geometry of the thermoelectric generator and the proposed geometry was more suitable for circular applications like pipes. Kaushik et al. [25] performed energy and exergy analysis of the annular thermoelectric generator, which incorporating the Thomson effect. The second law analysis revealed that the Thomson effect is detrimental to the performance of the thermoelectric generator.
Numerical study on the effect of fin length variation on the thermal performance of a bus duct conductor
Published in Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications, 2023
Mark Selvan, Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz, M. S. Nurulakmal, H. P. Ong, C. Y. Khor
The heat source was a crucial piece of the puzzle in the simulation setup. The heat source in this study was mainly from the Joule losses of the copper conductor. Joule heating, also known as resistive heating, is the process of generating heat when a current is passed through a conductor. The heat loss in the form of Joule losses for one volumetric heat source was considered. As both heat and electricity were involved, the thermal-electric analysis system was employed to study the magnitude of the heat source. Eqs. (11) and (12) were used to calculate Joule losses from the bus bar using the analytical method. where
Design optimization of tubular linear voice coil motors using swarm intelligence algorithms
Published in Engineering Optimization, 2022
Mehmet Akif Şahman, Mümtaz Mutluer, Mehmet Çunkaş
The properties of TLVCM are shown in Table 1. The original data in Table 2 are taken from the study of Luo et al. (2017) to verify the accuracy of the proposed approach. The number of turns per winding of the motor is 160, and the winding current is 4 A. NdFeB35SH is selected as a PM (Arnold-Neo 2020). Steel 1008 and a copper conductor are used as the ferromagnetic core and winding, respectively.