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Drinking Water Treatment
Published in Louis Theodore, R. Ryan Dupont, Water Resource Management Issues, 2019
Louis Theodore, R. Ryan Dupont
Chloramines are a family of oxidants formed by the reaction of chlorine and ammonia. In water treatment, chloramines are primarily used as a secondary disinfectant to provide a residual in the distribution system; however, chloramines are occasionally used as a primary disinfectant. In full-scale water treatment applications, ammonia is most frequently added to the water after chlorine (after achieving primary disinfection) and prior to entering the distribution system. Where alternative primary disinfectants, such as ozone or chlorine dioxide are used, ammonia may be added before chlorine or chlorine and ammonia may be added simultaneously. Simultaneous application is sometimes referred to as chloramination. Chloramine residuals are common during filtration to inhibit microbial (biofilm) growth on filter media that could increase filter head loss (pressure) build up (U.S. EPA 2019a).
Ultraviolet Electromagnetic Radiation
Published in Dave Birtalan, William Nunley, Optoelectronics, 2018
UV air–water–surface disinfection are established market applications that have employed UV mercury-based lamps for some time. Chlorine water treatment systems will continue to face growing competition from both ozone and UV lamp disinfection systems, and it is predicted that they will be gradually phased out in the coming years. Chlorine is chemically active and can react with foreign ingredients such as those as found in industrial waste waters to form toxic compounds. Chlorine can combine with ammonia to form chloramines, which are acutely toxic to fish at low concentration. Chlorination is not effective in inactivating Cryptosporidium, which has no cure and causes severe stomach cramps and diarrhea. Recovery time from this illness is typically 14 days for people without a weakened immune system. New EPA legislation requires the removal of 99% of Cryptosporidium using several methods that have helped increase the usage of UV disinfection.
Disinfection and Chlorine Disinfectants
Published in Joseph Cotruvo, Drinking Water Quality and Contaminants Guidebook, 2019
Chloramine is a beneficial treatment technology for providing a residual disinfectant during distribution of treated water. Using drinking water for dialysis, aquariums, and some other applications requires removal of chloramine either for health or taste reasons. If there is need to reduce the presence of chloramine in water the addition of reducing agents or use of activated carbon are effective. UV light will also decompose chloramines. Reducing agents like thiosulfate, sulfite, or sulfur dioxide can be used. Chloramine is more resistant to chemical reduction than chlorine so significantly longer contact times are necessary for activated carbon reduction systems.
Effects of Chloramine T on zebrafish embryos malformations associated with cardiotoxicity and neurotoxicity
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2023
Carla Letícia Gediel Rivero-Wendt, Luana Garcia Fernandes, Andreza Negreli dos Santos, Igor Leal Brito, Jeandre Augusto dos Santos Jaques, Edson dos Santos dos Anjos, Carlos Eurico Fernandes
Chloramine T (CL-T) is a broad-spectrum biocidal disinfectant used in livestock, slaughterhouses, industries, and fish farms (Haneke 2002; Quezada-Rodriguez et al. 2022). Chloramines are a combination of ammonia and chlorine. In air pure chlorine dissipates quickly when exposed to air. In water, chloramines are stable providing prolonged disinfection. Fish farms play an important role in developing safe food for the population. However, substances as well as their residues used to protect the fish production might enter the aquatic environment inducing changes in non-target organisms (Nadal et al. 2020). In addition chemical accumulation might result in environmental pollution (Quesada-Garcia et al. 2013; Agoba et al. 2017; Bahadır et al. 2019). In fish farms, large-scale production fish might suffer injuries attributed to external microbial exposure and these microbes are assumed to act as contamination propagation agents that require disinfection (Bentes et al. 2022; Soleimani and Sattari 2017).
Indoor chlorine gas release in a natatorium: A case study
Published in Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 2021
Benjamin N. Craig, Trent F. Parker, Qingsheng Wang, Michael D. Larrañaga
Chloramines include the inorganic compounds monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2), and trichloramine (NCl3) (Jacobs et al. 2007). According to the CDC (2016), chloramines often off gas from pool water, particularly indoors, and when airborne irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract similar to chlorine gas (Weng et al. 2011). Of the chloramines, trichloramine is the most volatile and is easily released into the air (Jacobs et al. 2007). When the free chlorine present within pool water contacts contaminants, including urine, saliva, sweat, and other organic materials, chloramines are formed and can spontaneously off gas into the air (Rodríguez et al. 2018). This is because these contaminants contain ammonia (NH3), which react with chlorine to generate chloramines. However, as there were likely no chloramines present in the pool water because of a lack of human activity in the newly filled and reopened pool, it is unlikely that chloramines would have interfered with the ORP readings. Thus, chloramines were excluded as a potential cause of the gas release.
Modeling chlorine-produced oxidant demand and dilution in chlorinated combined sewer overflow discharges
Published in Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 2020
Austin Taterka, Robert Miskewitz, Robert R. Sharp, Jurek Patoczka
CPO is the sum of the free and combined oxidative species that form upon adding free chlorine-bearing compounds (such as gaseous chlorine or hypochlorite) to water. When chlorine is added to fresh water, the solution will contain hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the hypochlorite ion (OCl−), which are collectively known as free chlorine. If ammonia is present in water, various chloramines form, called combined chlorine. The sum of free and combined chlorine is called total chlorine.[4] When water contains bromide (present in ocean water), addition of chlorine also produces hypobromous acid (HOBr−), hypobromous ion (OBr−), and bromamines, which are all disinfecting agents. The term “chlorine-produced oxidants” (CPO) is used by some regulatory jurisdictions (like New Jersey) to refer to the sum of these disinfecting agents, and it is regulated just like chlorine.[6] CPO is measured with the same methods as total chlorine, with an understanding that if bromide compounds are present, it will be included in such analyses.