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Alkyl Halides and Substitution Reactions
Published in Michael B. Smith, A Q&A Approach to Organic Chemistry, 2020
Chemical synthesis is a series of chemical steps to convert one compound into another by reaction with other molecules and/or reaction with regents that modify the functional group. What is a synthetic route to ethyltert-butyl ether from molecules containing four carbons or less?
Treatment of Pharmaceutical Industry Effluents
Published in Mihir Kumar Purkait, Piyal Mondal, Chang-Tang Chang, Treatment of Industrial Effluents, 2019
Mihir Kumar Purkait, Piyal Mondal, Chang-Tang Chang
Chemical synthesis processes use organic and inorganic chemicals in batch operations to produce drugs with defined pharmacological action or intermediates. A schematic diagram of the chemical synthesis process is shown in Figure 6.2. Mainly, a series of chemical reactions are carried out in multipurpose reactors. The products are isolated by using different separation processes such as liquid–liquid extraction, leaching (solid–liquid extraction), crystallization, and filtration. The product is then usually dried, milled, and sent for further processing to the formulation unit. The chemical synthesis process is usually a multistep process with a lot of intermediates and by-products.
Dangers and Risks in the Sparks
Published in Yongyuth Yuthavong, Sparks from the Spirit, 2018
Once the risks have been identified and their potential effects assessed, further action consists of prioritizing the risks and considering the range of options that can be taken. These include stopping the project, making further study, or going ahead with suitable prevention and mitigation measures. Prevention of risks can be achieved by choosing alternatives that do not carry the risks. In a project for synthesis of a drug, for example, some steps may carry the risk of explosive reactions, which can be prevented by choosing other reaction steps that do not carry such risks. Risk mitigation is a reduction of risks to manageable or acceptable levels. In the example of the chemical synthesis, if it is necessary to carry out potentially hazardous reactions, the reaction must be done in a controlled environment and steps taken to ensure the safety of the chemists and the facilities. Risk prevention and mitigation are important in all activities where people and the environment may be exposed to the effects of adverse events, such as mishaps in power plants, release of new pesticides, or release of excess heat such as that from industrial processes. Special precautions need to be taken to ensure the safety of people and the environment from new agents and procedures in science and technology, including communication to the public concerning the nature of the risks and measures taken to prevent or reduce the risks. The precautionary principle, often applied by policy makers, states that when an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or the environment, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action or adopting the policy. This principle should be applied to all projects carrying risks for the public, including those in science and technology, although in many cases it is difficult and contentious, requiring assessment of risks that may be unfamiliar or difficult to gauge.
Green synthesis of pure copper oxide nanoparticles using Quercus infectoria galls extract, thermal behavior and their antimicrobial effects
Published in Particulate Science and Technology, 2022
Marzieh Khatamifar, S. Jamilaldin Fatemi
The antibacterial activity of synthesized copper oxide nanoparticles showed effective inhibitory activity against widespread pathogens. However, the price of copper oxide is lower than metals with antibacterial properties such as silver and gold (Ijaz et al. 2017). Furthermore, antibacterial activity of CuO nanoparticles probably depends on size, morphology, distribution and surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles (Chatterjee, Chakraborty, and Basu 2014). CuO nanoparticles have been prepared by several methods such as thermal decomposition (Xu et al. 2002), metal salt reduction (Kobayashi et al. 2011), microwave heating, radiation method (Wang et al. 2002), micro emulsion technique (Dodoo-Arhin, Leoni, and Scardi 2012), sonochemical reduction (Anandan, Lee, and Wu 2012), laser ablation (Khashan, Sulaiman, and Abdulameer 2016) and solvothermal method (Ghosh and Rao 2004). Nevertheless, there are many potential problems and limitations associated with a variety of physical and chemical synthesis methods such as high cost, high temperature treatment, high energy, requirement of sophisticated equipment and usage of dangerous, harmful and toxic chemicals, which are catastrophic for the environment in our planet. Furthermore, toxic materials adsorption on the surface of nanoparticles limits the usage of them in biological and medical applications (Buazar et al. 2019).
Green, lipophilic and recyclable catalysts for the aerobic oxidation of alcohols
Published in Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry, 2020
Zahra Mousavi, Bahram Pourgholam, Asghar Zamani, Seyyed Meysam Abtahi Froushani
Due to importance of green chemistry in recent years, organic chemists are interested in study for improvement of nontoxic chemical synthesis.[10] The development of organic process in aqueous phase instead of volatile hazardous solvents such as toluene and chlorinated hydrocarbons is a challenge especially to industrial chemists.[11,12] Thus, by using water as a solvent deals many benefits, such as easy handling, low-cost being, nontoxicity, abundant availability and leads to sustainable and green processes.