China
Africa
Explore chapters and articles related to this topic
Batteries
Published in Cary R. Spitzer, Uma Ferrell, Thomas Ferrell, Digital Avionics Handbook, 2017
Lithium-ion cells have very long cycle life, comparable to that of nickel–cadmium batteries (e.g., 1000–2000 cycles at 80% depth of discharge per cycle). Predictions of 5–10-year service life have been made. However, unlike nickel–cadmium batteries, lithium-ion batteries are not tolerant of being left in the deeply discharged condition, such as when the power switch is inadvertently left on overnight or for a long weekend. This type of condition results in rapid corrosion of the copper anode, causing irreversible capacity loss. To prevent this occurrence, it is advisable to include a means of disconnecting the battery from the load, such as a timer circuit when the aircraft is powered down. Otherwise, the service life of the lithium-ion battery could be very short. Lithium-ion cells also suffer irreversible capacity loss when maintained at 100% state of charge for a prolonged time period, so the service life of batteries that stay fully charged (i.e., emergency batteries) may also be limited.
Refrigeration Systems
Published in İbrahim Dinçer, Heat Transfer in Food Cooling Applications, 1997
This storage technique involves chemical reactions. Thermal energy can be used to drive a chemical reaction (reversible thermal decomposition reaction), and the products can be stored indefinitely at room temperature with no capacity loss. When required, they are recombined in a chemical reaction that releases thermal energy. Chemical heat pumps are still in the experimental stage [58].
Traffic operation for longer battery life of connected automated vehicles in signal-free networks
Published in Transportmetrica B: Transport Dynamics, 2023
Fushata A. Mohammed, Mahyar Amirgholy
Autonomous vehicles are highly expected to be fully electric because of the high energy efficiency of the electric powertrains and zero tailpipe emission. In recent years, there have been tremendous advances in the technology of the battery and powertrain of electric vehicles. Nonetheless, the battery life is still considered the Achilles’ heel of electric vehicles. The battery chemistries used in electric vehicles have evolved from lead-acid batteries to nickel-metal hybrid and lithium-ion batteries (Muneer, Kolhe, and Doyle 2017). Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in electric vehicles because of the long life and high shelf capacity of these batteries. The low self-discharging characteristics and high energy density of LIBs also make them very suitable for electric vehicles (Azahan, Jamian, and Noorden 2016; Schoch 2018). LIBs generally undergo two main degradation mechanisms: cycling-capacity loss and calendar-capacity loss. Cycling-capacity loss occurs due to the growth of the solid electrolyte interphase layer and the loss of cyclable lithium during battery charging–discharging processes. Calendar-capacity loss is also caused by self-discharge and side reactions during battery storage, mainly dictated by the battery aging period, state of charge, and ambient temperature (Xiongwen 2011; Barré et al. 2013; Xiao and Choe 2013; Han et al. 2014). The capacity loss of LIBs in electric vehicles generally depends on the temperature, depth of discharge, charge–discharge rate, cycling time, and driving pattern/maneuvers (Goodenough and Kim 2010; Ul-Haq et al. 2017; Ma et al. 2018). The performance, life, and aging mechanisms of LIBs have been widely studied in the literature (Broussely et al. 2001; Sun, Wei, and Dai 2014; Liu et al. 2020; Spitthoff, Shearing, and Odne 2021). Various models are proposed in the literature for estimating the age of LIBs. These models range from electrochemical and semi-empirical models to equivalent circuit models (Yang et al. 2017; Maheshwari, Heck, and Santarelli 2018).