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Central nervous system
Published in A Stewart Whitley, Jan Dodgeon, Angela Meadows, Jane Cullingworth, Ken Holmes, Marcus Jackson, Graham Hoadley, Randeep Kumar Kulshrestha, Clark’s Procedures in Diagnostic Imaging: A System-Based Approach, 2020
A Stewart Whitley, Jan Dodgeon, Angela Meadows, Jane Cullingworth, Ken Holmes, Marcus Jackson, Graham Hoadley, Randeep Kumar Kulshrestha
The cerebellum is situated in the posterior cranial fossa behind the pons and the medulla (Fig. 11.2c). It consists of two hemispheres joined by a narrow median strip, termed the vermis. The grey matter lies on the surface and its internal structure forms a branch-like pattern known as the arbor vitae. Cerebellar functions are below the level of consciousness and include the maintenance of balance and posture and co-ordination of voluntary muscle movement.
Advanced 4D-bioprinting technologies for brain tissue modeling and study
Published in International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials, 2019
Timothy J. Esworthy, Shida Miao, Se-Jun Lee, Xuan Zhou, Haitao Cui, Yi Y. Zuo, Lijie Grace Zhang
The brain is anatomically partitioned into four interconnected tissue subsystems and is composed of an estimated 86 billion neurons, and some 85 billion non-neuronal cells [46,47]. In brief, the general tissue subsystems of the brain include the cerebrum (which is divided into two cerebral hemispheres), the brainstem, the diencephalon, and the cerebellum [46]. The brainstem is comprised of 3 main parts: (i) the midbrain (mesencephalon), which is associated with motor functioning; (ii) the pons, which encompasses several cranial nerve nuclei and serves as an important conduit for bidirectional neural tracts; and (iii) the medulla, which largely functions to regulate vital processes such as heart contraction and breathing [46,48]. The cerebellum or ‘little-brain’ is located adjacent to the brainstem in the posterior cranial fossa. Its distinctive exterior is composed of many fine grooves of undulating tissue known as folia, and as a whole, is largely associated with motor control and muscle memory [46,48]. The forebrain is composed of both the cerebrum and the diencephalon. The diencephalon houses both the thalamus, which serves as a cortical relay, and the hypothalamus, which largely works to modulate autonomic functions such as the regulation of body temperature [46,48]. The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain and is divided into two, non-symmetrical hemispheres which entail the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and amygdala [46,48–50].
Resnet-Unet-FSOA based cranial nerve segmentation and medial axis extraction using MRI images
Published in The Imaging Science Journal, 2023
Within the central and peripheral nervous systems, nerves are contiguous bundles of axons that connect the brain to tissues. They are used to either send sensory information to the brain or relay brain motor commands to tissues (CNS, PNS). In neurosurgical procedures, cranial nerves are susceptible to iatrogenic damage, particularly when they are close to skull-base malignancies that need to be removed. Traction, transection, stretching, and impingement are some of the ways that nerves can be injured. According to reviews of nerve injuries, iatrogenic causes may account for up to 17.4% of these [17]. Cranial nerves are accountable for most of the human pleasure through hearing, smelling, eyesight, and tasting and also for non-speaking interaction of our emotions by means of facial expressions that states everyone as unique [2,18–20]. Cranial nerves are highly risky structures at the time of the neurosurgical process interior and exterior of the skull base that causes damage to loss of vision, facial paralysis, or hearing, which are related to life-changing morbidity [21]. The contribution of cranial nerves happens owing to their closeness to the location of infection [7,22,23]. The segmentation of cranial nerves based on the actual colour of medical images is in critical requirement and has better research as well as development forecasts [24]. Cranial nerves are at danger to iatrogenic damage in the neurosurgery process, particularly closer to skull base cancers, which should be extirpated [25]. There are XII pairs of cranial nerves that arise from the brainstem or brain, leave the skull by means of cranial-foramina as well as innervate several parts of the neck and head [21]. With an exemption of cranial nerve I and cranial nerve II, the remaining nerves leave the brain stem from ponto-mesencephalic junction to medulla oblongata, pass by means of basal cisterns as well as peri-mesencephalic and leave the intra-cranial section through neurovascular foramina of skull base from front to back [18]. The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa, which is classified into three transverse areas. The major caudal is the medulla, the central or middle portion is the pons and lastly, the rostral part is the mesencephalon or midbrain [26].