China 
Africa 
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Sustainable Management of Affordable Housing
Published in AbdulLateef Olanrewaju, Zalina Shari, Zhonghua Gou, Greening Affordable Housing, 2019
In 2011, African countries reported substantive political commitments to WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene), increasing funding allocations along with leadership and coordination among implementing agencies. The majority of countries have established transparent WASH service provision targets and have put in place supporting policies, and many monitor against these targets. Countries also confirm that the rights to water and sanitation are increasingly adopted in laws or policies. The lack of sanitation is a serious concern because of the associated massive health burden as many people who lack basic sanitation engage in unsanitary activities like open defecation, solid waste disposal and wastewater disposal. The practice of open defecation is the primary cause of faecal oral transmission of disease with children being the most vulnerable. Despite the commitments and technical know-how, there is insufficient domestic financing for WASH overall, especially sanitation. This is exacerbated by a lack of coordination among authorities, stemming from an unclear definition of roles and responsibilities, coupled with lack of harmonization of policies and inadequate staffing in government departments that handle environmental issues.
Background
Published in Sarah Ruel-Bergeron, Jimi Patel, Riksum Kazi, Charlotte Burch, Assessing Public Health Needs in a Lower Middle Income Country, 2020
Sarah Ruel-Bergeron, Jimi Patel, Riksum Kazi, Charlotte Burch
The municipality of Idenau lacks the basic sanitation infrastructure needed for its inhabitants to follow proper hygiene behaviours. The lack of toilets in the community forces the residents to practice open defecation, introducing a cycle of faecal contamination and life-threatening infectious diseases. Hygiene behaviours like handwashing are vital in breaking the cycle of faecal contamination. However, the lack of access to clean water and absence of basic hand washing facilities prevent the residents of the Idenau municipality from learning or practicing handwashing. Historically, neither the residents nor the municipality have prioritized sanitation upgrades.
Evaluation of Water and Its Contaminants
Published in William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel, Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 5, 2017
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel
In addition, 18% of the world's population, or 1.2 billion people (1 out of 3 in rural areas), defecate in the open. Open defecation significantly compromises quality in nearby water bodies and poses an extreme human health risk.4
A cluster-randomised trial to evaluate an intervention to promote handwashing in rural Nigeria
Published in International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2022
Adam Biran, S. White, B. Awe, K. Greenland, K. Akabike, N. Chuktu, R. Aunger, V. Curtis, W. Schmidt, C. Van der Voorden
All communities in the CLTS arm received standard CLTS which followed a format described in detail elsewhere (Kar and Chambers 2008). In each community, a triggering session was facilitated by a team of six trained facilitators using standard CLTS tools to raise awareness of the problem of open defecation and discuss solutions. Subsequent visits to the community by facilitators were used to support planning, monitoring and progress towards increased latrine coverage and the end of open defecation. The total number of visits varied according to the perceived need for support as well as the accessibility of the community. ‘CLTS communities’ were not necessarily administrative units but were geographical clusters of roughly 70 households that formed the units for CLTS triggering and follow-up. Meetings with key stakeholders at the level of the ward (a formal administrative unit comprising several villages) took place prior to the triggering events with the aim of ensuring buy-in and support of local leaders.