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RNA-Based Vaccines for Infectious Disease
Published in Yashwant V. Pathak, Gene Delivery Systems, 2022
Deepa Dehari, Aiswarya Chaudhuri, Sanjay Singh, Ashish Kumar Agrawal
The influenza virus is a pulmonary pathogenic virus responsible for 250,000 to 500,000 fatalities yearly globally, and immunization is the most inexpensive way to prevent and handle influenza incidence [63–64]. Currently approved inactivated influenza vaccines (IIVs) comprise the hemagglutinin (HA) viral surface protein and trigger strain-specific antibody responses that defend against serologically matched or closely linked virus infections. Due to the increased mutation rate in HA, periodic vaccines must be modified every year to fit the transmitted viruses. Seasonal vaccines fail to protect against newly evolving influenza virus infections or pandemic incidences. As a result, for the past two decades, researchers have been working on a “universal” influenza vaccine that can provide wider safeguards against all subgroups of influenza A virus. Adjuvants, such as MF59, improve the depth of immune response triggered by seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines, but not enough to overcome the temporary vaccine strain that alters constraint [65–66].
Human physiology, hazards and health risks
Published in Stephen Battersby, Clay's Handbook of Environmental Health, 2023
Revati Phalkey, Naima Bradley, Alec Dobney, Virginia Murray, John O’Hagan, Mutahir Ahmad, Darren Addison, Tracy Gooding, Timothy W Gant, Emma L Marczylo, Caryn L Cox
The influenza virus (or ‘flu’ virus) is a ubiquitous and highly infectious cause of acute respiratory infection. The virus is categorised into influenza A, B and C with influenza A and B considered to be the main pathogens responsible for most influenza illnesses. Influenza virus infection has a worldwide distribution with seasonal epidemics. In the UK, these seasonal epidemics (seasonal influenza) occur between October and March (the colder, winter months) and affects all age groups and last on average six–ten weeks, with a peak seen around week four.
Manufacturing of seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines–A case study
Published in Amine Kamen, Laura Cervera, Bioprocessing of Viral Vaccines, 2023
Cristina A. T. Silva, Shantoshini Dash, Amine Kamen
The influenza disease is an upper respiratory tract infection caused by the influenza virus, usually characterized by mild symptoms, such as cough, fever, sore throat, and muscle pain, sometimes evolving to more severe and even lethal pneumonia [1]. Influenza outbreaks are believed to have occured since at least the Middle Ages, possibly before that, affecting humanity as a whole in the form of localized outbreaks, seasonal epidemics, and occasional pandemics [2]. Every year, between 290,000–645,000 people die of complications from seasonal influenza, particularly young infants, and adults older than 65 [3]. While it is possible to estimate when seasonal influenza epidemics will occur around the world, predicting their magnitude and severity, as well as the exact composition of the infectious agent, is a challenging task for public health authorities. Additionally, since vaccination is the most effective way of protection, defining vaccine composition based on circulating strains and organizing worldwide manufacturing and supply of vaccines is a formidable effort. Influenza pandemics, on the other hand, occur every 10–40 years as a result of the introduction of a new and antigenically distinct influenza strain, that usually has zoonotic origins [4]. Whereas it is currently impossible to predict exactly when or how it will occur, understanding the genetic and epidemiological characteristics of past pandemics is critical to develop and optimize influenza surveillance tools [5]. Since the beginning of the 20th century, humanity has seen four global influenza pandemics: in 1918–1920, the Spanish flu is estimated to have killed up to 50 million people around the globe; between 1957–1958, the Asian flu resulted in the death of 1.5 million people; the Hong Kong flu, was responsible for 1 million deaths from 1968–1969; finally, the swine flu, a milder and more recent pandemic, is estimated to have caused around 200,000 deaths globally in its first year of circulation [4,6].
Strait fuzzy sets, strait fuzzy rough sets and their similarity measures-based decision making systems
Published in International Journal of Systems Science, 2023
Akın Osman Atagün, Hüseyin Kamacı
Influenza viruses cause mild to severe respiratory infections in humans and are a major public health problem. Seasonal influenza viruses cause millions of serious cases and many deaths each year worldwide. Influenza vaccines cause antibodies to develop in the body about two-three weeks after vaccination. Antibody responses to the influenza virus have long been known to be protective against influenza virus infection.
Prevention of seasonal influenza outbreak via healthcare insurance
Published in IISE Transactions on Healthcare Systems Engineering, 2022
Ting-Yu Ho, Zelda B. Zabinsky, Paul A. Fishman, Shan Liu
Flu is a contagious respiratory illness caused by the influenza virus that infects about 3%-11% of the U.S. population in each flu season (CDC, 2019c). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that, in the 2019–2020 (2018–2019) flu season, approximately 35 million (29 million) people contracted the flu, resulting in 16 million (13 million) people visiting a health care provider, 380, 000 (380, 000) hospitalizations, and 20, 000 (28, 000) deaths (CDC, 2019a, 2020a). The CDC recommends an annual flu vaccine, offering protection against the influenza virus, as the first and most effective step in preventing the seasonal flu (CDC, 2020c; Grohskopf et al., 2018). Getting a yearly vaccine is especially important for vulnerable populations such as infants and the elderly. Each vaccinated individual also protects others in the community who cannot be vaccinated since susceptible individuals are now less likely to catch the flu. If more individuals become vaccinated, community immunity, also called “herd immunity,” protects the unvaccinated masses by decreasing the circulation of the influenza virus. Vaccination also reduces the risk of flu-associated hospitalization and death. To promote vaccination in the U.S., flu shots are often widely available and covered at no out-of-pocket expense for individuals with health insurance. Nevertheless, in the 2019-2020 flu season, the CDC estimates that only 48.4% of adults (an increase of 3.1 percentage points from the prior flu season) and 63.8% of children (an increase of 1.2 percentage points from the prior flu season) in America received flu vaccines (CDC, 2019b, 2020 b). Many individuals fail to vaccinate due to personal, religious, and philosophical beliefs, as well as access barriers including complexity in scheduling, inconvenience, and lack of knowledge and perceived benefit. Value-based insurance models routinely offer a variety of incentives to encourage more efficient health-seeking behavior. Pharmacies and other healthcare providers often offer financial rewards to all individuals seeking flu shots, in the form of a $5-25 store coupon or direct cash reward.