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Introduction to Cancer, Conventional Therapies, and Bionano-Based Advanced Anticancer Strategies
Published in D. Sakthi Kumar, Aswathy Ravindran Girija, Bionanotechnology in Cancer, 2023
It is a self-digestion process, which is also another source of cell death. It is the process where it removes and degrades the damaged cellular constituents by which a small portion of cellular components are isolated from the rest of the cell to form a double layered vesicle called autophagosome. Autophagosome further fuses with lysosome having low pH (acidic) and later endosome to form autolysosome. When autophagy and lysosome degradation is disturbed, Cathespin B is released from lysosome to trigger mitochondrial permeabalization and caspase activation. Cathespin D is translocated from lysosome to cytosol, which is responsible for Bax activation and apoptotic induced factor release. In addition, caspase cleave autophagy relative proteins, such as Beclin1, Bcl-2, P53, and UV-irradiation resistance gene (UVRAG), are several tumor proteins that regulate autophagy.
Application of Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Vaccines as Drug Delivery Tools
Published in Loutfy H. Madkour, Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery in Cancer Treatment, 2022
It has been compared the efficacy of MWNTs functionalized using 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, oxidation, or amide coupling reactions in delivering noncovalently immobilized OVA to APCs [136]. The MWNTs functionalized via amide coupling were more efficient in enhancing the OVA-specific immune response both in vitro and in vivo. In a follow-up study, the functionalized MWNT possessing surface chemistry that was found optimal for OVA delivery was then utilized for the co-delivery of OVA along with the adjuvants CpG and anti-CD40 Ab (αCD40) to the APCs in form of a (αCD40) MWNT (OVA-CpG) conjugate [137]. In addition to the immunostimulatory properties that can be acquired by the inclusion of αCD40 [107,138,139], we hypothesized that αCD40 contained in the aforementioned conjugate will target it to the CD40 receptor on APCs, including cross-priming DC subsets, and thereby further enhance antigen cross-presentation to CD8+ T cells. Previous studies have demonstrated the ability of αCD40-antigen conjugates to mediate uptake via CD40 receptor and enable translocation of the conjugate to the early endosomes [140–142]. It has been suggested that antigen translocation to early endosomes could support antigen escape into the cytosol and thereby promote antigen cross-presentation (Figure 9.8).
Nanotechnology-Mediated Strategy for the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain
Published in Cherry Bhargava, Amit Sachdeva, Nanotechnology, 2020
Pankaj Prashar, Ankita Sood, Anamika Gautam, Pardeep Kumar Sharma, Bimlesh Kumar, Indu Melkani, Sakshi Panchal, Sachin Kumar Singh, Monica Gulati, Narendra Kumar Pandey, Linu Dash, Anupriya, Varimadugu Bhanukirankumar Reddy
Intercellular transfers through vesicles of macromolecules, known as exosomes, have become increasingly important as an innovative way of intercellular crosstalk. One type of NP may also be called exosomes. In terms of their growth, the exosomes are formed by the internal growing of endosomes into multi-vesicular structures that merge into the surrounding region with the plasma membranes (Shiue et al. 2019). Depending on the cell forms, they include a number of elements, including proteins, mRNA, and miRNA. Such components are transmitted through exosomes, may be considered a “cargo” and are either distributed to cells around them or rendered to function in distant cells. It is thus reasonable why various anomalies will arise in the receiver cells, including the reprogrammed DNA, based on the cargo material. Not only does the cargo affect receptor cells, it also includes proteins that serve as distributors on the surface membrane of the exosomes. Therefore, exosomes are known as modern intercellular connectivity between cell-based elements, albeit without the anticipated direct interaction from cell to cell. After recognizing the functioning of exosomes, the capacity of these NPs for treatment and other therapy can be believed (Jean-Toussaint et al. 2020; X. Yu et al. 2020).
COVID-19: a pandemic challenging healthcare systems
Published in IISE Transactions on Healthcare Systems Engineering, 2021
Lidong Wang, Cheryl Ann Alexander
SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA-enveloped virus. It targets cells via the S protein which binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. After binding to the ACE2 receptor, viral DNA actively transports into the cell using endosomes. Viral entry via the S protein through the host type-2 receptor is assisted with transport by the transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS2, found in the host ACE2 receptor. After viral particles are transported into the cell, viral polyproteins are synthesized and encode for the replicase-transcriptase complex which subsequently integrate the viral RNA and structural proteins, later assembling the viral particles for completion for release to infect the next host cell (Sanders et al., 2020). Researchers have confirmed ACE2 as the receptor which plays the necessary role in human-to-human transmission and infection of SARS-CoV-2. Data about single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), which is available online, was collected to assess the cell specific expression of ACE2 in multiple fetal organs and the maternal-fetal interface. It was shown that ACE2 was greatly expressed in the cells of the interface. Also, ACE2 was expressed in specific cell categories of human fetal heart, lung, liver, except kidney (Li et al., 2020).
Extracellular vesicles released in response to respiratory exposures: implications for chronic disease
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 2018
Birke J. Benedikter, Emiel F. M. Wouters, Paul H. M. Savelkoul, Gernot G. U. Rohde, Frank R. M. Stassen
Importantly, EV are not a homogenous population (Kowal et al. 2016). While EV nomenclature is still controversial (Gould and Raposo 2013), it is generally recognized that there are three major EV subtypes. The first subtype, exosomes, is formed by inward budding of the endosomal membrane to form intraluminal vesicles, and subsequently released to the extracellular space by fusion of multivesicular endosomes (MVE) with the plasma membrane (Abels and Breakefield 2016). The second subtype, commonly referred to as microvesicles (or microparticles or ectosomes), arises by outward budding of the plasma membrane (Abels and Breakefield 2016). The third EV type is apoptotic bodies, large membrane vesicles that are formed by apoptotic membrane blebbing and that contain DNA fragments and cellular organelles (Thery, Ostrowski, and Segura 2009). This review focuses on the first two EV subtypes, exosomes and microvesicles, whose key properties are summarized in Table 1. Apoptotic bodies are not considered because these are formed only during apoptotic cell fragmentation.
Recent advances of polymer based nanosystems in cancer management
Published in Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 2023
Chetan Janrao, Shivani Khopade, Akshay Bavaskar, Shyam Sudhakar Gomte, Tejas Girish Agnihotri, Aakanchha Jain
It is generally known that nanoparticles often enter cells through endosomal compartments before being transported to lysosomes and remain trapped if the nanoparticles lack a mechanism to cause endosomal escape [129]. After endocytic uptake, nanocarriers get internalized into endocytic vesicles, fuse with early endosomes, while matured into late endosomes, and finally accumulate in lysosomes. Since most treatments do not have an active site in endosomes or lysosomes, drug release from these compartments is crucial for increased therapeutic effectiveness [130]. Endosomal escape has been demonstrated to be induced by a number of nanoparticulate formulations such as liposomes, inorganic nanoparticles and polymeric nanoparticles [131].