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Introduction to Cancer, Conventional Therapies, and Bionano-Based Advanced Anticancer Strategies
Published in D. Sakthi Kumar, Aswathy Ravindran Girija, Bionanotechnology in Cancer, 2023
There are many ways in which cancer cells are different from normal cells that enable them to become invasive. One critical difference is that normal cells are more specialized than cancer cells. That is, unlike normal cells, cancer cells do not mature into distinct cell types that have specific functions. Cancer cells undergo uncontrolled cell division. Furthermore, the signals that induce normal cells to halt division or that induce apoptosis are ignored by cancer cells. In addition, cancer cells can influence the surrounding of normal cells and blood vessels to feed the tumor. For example, they can induce the normal cells to produce new blood vessels to supply the tumor with oxygen and nutrients for their growth. These newly formed blood vessels are also needed for the removal of waste products from tumors. The immune system can also remove damaged cells or normal cells that become abnormal in the body, unlike cancer cells, which can often evade the immune system [107].
Overview of Development of Gene Therapy
Published in Yashwant V. Pathak, Gene Delivery Systems, 2022
Ofosua Adi-Dako, Doris Kumadoh, Yashwant V. Pathak, Nana Kwame Gyamerah
Retroviruses such as HIV are viruses that can transform RNA genomes into double-stranded DNA and integrate into the chromosomes of their host cells (Keeler et al., 2017). One issue with retrovirus-based gene therapy is that the integrase enzyme can insert the virus’s genome into any position in the host genome (Sauderson et al., 2013). If the genetic material is put in the middle of one of the host cell’s main genes, the gene’s function will be harmed (insertional mutation) (Yazdani et al., 2018). If a gene is inserted during the cell division process, the result is uncontrolled cell division (cancer) (Yazdani et al., 2018). The use of zinc finger nucleases and particular sequences such as the beta globin control region has helped to alleviate this challenge in part by directing the insertion of the gene into specific chromosomal locations (Lundstrom, 2018).
Petroleum Geochemical Survey
Published in Muhammad Abdul Quddus, Petroleum Science and Technology, 2021
The nucleus of the cell is situated inside the cytoplasm. One of the most important constituents of the nucleus is nucleic acids. It is the most complex part of the cell and is composed of substances that control the hereditary and genetic characteristics. The nucleus is again surrounded by a special membrane made of phosphide polymeric compounds. The phosphide membrane has small openings that act as inlet and outlet valves. Both inlet and outlet valves are called ‘annuli’. The annuli allow required and needed nutrients to go in and out of the nucleus. With elapse of time, every cell undergoes subdivision, multiplication and extinction. The fully grown mother cell gives rise (division) to a daughter cell. The cell grows through a biological process called ‘metabolism’. The metabolism process is of two kinds. The metabolism process that breaks down large molecules to provide energy for the cell is known as the ‘catabolism process’. Second, the ‘anabolism process’ uses energy to create complex molecules to perform other biological functions. In the process of cell division and mother/daughter events, the important aspect is the equal distribution of a nucleus substance known as the ‘chromosomes’. The chromosomes control the hereditary characteristics. Chromosomes are a complex substance of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins (histamine). The complex substance constitutes a material known as ‘genes’
Introducing a modern chemotherapeutic drug formulated by iron nanoparticles for the treatment of human lung cancer
Published in Journal of Experimental Nanoscience, 2021
Junfeng Bai, Xin Gongsun, Liangliang Xue, Mohammad Mahdi Zangeneh
Cancer is a genetic disease that includes 277 types of diseases. There are also more than 100,000 types of chemicals in our environment, of which only 35,000 have been analysed and about 300 of them produce cancer. The remaining 65,000 chemicals in nature have not yet been tested. Cancer occurs due to uncontrolled cell division, which is the result of environmental factors and genetic disorders [35, 36]. The four key genes involved in cancer cell conduction include DNA repair genes, tumour suppressor genes, oncogenes and programmed death genes [37, 38]. If a genetic mutation is produced in a cell, normal cells go out of their way and are affected by new commands that progress to cancer cells. In addition to chemicals, sunlight, shortwave, viruses and bacteria also have a special role in causing cancer [36–38]. Cancers have existed since the beginning of mankind. In recent decades, advances in computer molecular medicine have been able to not only study the causes and mechanisms of this deadly disease but also to perform better in its early diagnosis and treatment [21, 39]. More than 50% of cancers are currently being treated, especially if diagnosed early. Cancer can be treated in several ways: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy or a combination of these. Due to the relative inefficiency and very severe side effects of chemotherapy drugs, researchers and scientists have sought a new formulation of various compounds, especially metallic nanoparticles [21, 38].
Nanostructured assemblies of liquid-crystalline supermolecules: from display to medicine
Published in Liquid Crystals, 2019
Figure 29 shows a schematic sketch of a cell cycle. The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases. G1 phase is marked by the synthesis of enzymes needed for DNA replication. During S phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled. Then, significant protein synthesis occurs during G2 phase. The cell splits itself into two distinct cells during M phase. Cell division occurs actively in cancer cells. Many anti-cancer drugs target the S phase of the cell cycle. For example, nitrogen mustard is intercalated to DNA double helix via the alkylation of nucleic-acid base, which disturbs the DNA replication.
A review on synthesis and applications of versatile nanomaterials
Published in Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry, 2022
G. N. Kokila, C. Mallikarjunaswamy, V. Lakshmi Ranganatha
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal and uncontrollable cell division and spread to other parts of the body. Cancer is one of the reasons for the high death rate of human beings worldwide. Cancer may result from the exposure of human body to prolonged ionized radiations, improper diet and physical activities, stress, exposure to pollutants and viruses, smoking and tobacco consumption, or maybe due to genetic inheritance. The most common cancer types are basal cell cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, leukemia, sarcoma, and lymphoma. Cancer treatment can be done by surgery, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, photo-thermal therapy, and specific chemotherapy.[272,273] These treatment methods have their limitations. Radiotherapy has disadvantages like it may damage the other surrounding cells, incapability to destroy all the tumor cells, destroy the cancerous cell that cannot be seen on the imaging scans, and develop secondary cancer. The main disadvantage of chemotherapy is the development of resistance against drugs and other chemical agents. The untimely detection of cancer, nonspecific distribution, inadequate supply, and long-term residence of the drug at the tumor cell bring complications in cancer treatment. Developing nanotechnology eliminates the many problems which are arising from the standard cancer treatment methods. Nanoparticles can be loaded with drugs and deliver to specifically targeted cancer cells which ensure minimal usage of drugs and helps to reduce the development of drug resistance in the body.[274] Nanoparticle can also help in the early detection of cancer then cure the disease in the preliminary stage and reduce the risk of death. The nanoparticle may inject directly into the cancer cell and use their mechanical property like magnetic property destroys the cancer cells.