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General U.S. Federal Environmental Statutes
Published in Barry L. Johnson, Maureen Y. Lichtveld, Environmental Policy and Public Health, 2017
Barry L. Johnson, Maureen Y. Lichtveld
The third act listed above was a component of a set of actions by the U.S. Congress in reaction to the 9/11 terrorist attack on the U.S. The first major act was the USA Patriot Act of 2001, which gave law enforcement officials sweeping new powers to conduct searches without warrants, monitor financial transactions and eavesdrop, and detain and deport, in secret, individuals suspected of committing terrorist acts. But by far the most far-reaching and significant measure enacted after September 11 was the Department of Homeland Security Act (DHS) of 2002, which established the Cabinet-level DHS and created the position of Secretary of Homeland Security. This new federal government department was vested with the principal responsibility of protecting the U.S. from terrorist attacks. The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 was enacted as a measure of protection against bioterrorism attacks on the U.S.
Necessity for Effective Programming Techniques
Published in Herman Koren, Best Practices for Environmental Health, 2017
Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases may be delivered to unprepared areas by the use of biological weapons used by terrorists. Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses and/or bacteria in order to cause sickness or death to people, animals, or plants. A variety of organisms may be utilized. See Chapter 5 on “Environmental Health Emergencies, Disasters, and Terrorism.”
On the interpretation of bioaerosol exposure measurements and impacts on health
Published in Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 2019
Hamza Mbareche, Lidia Morawska, Caroline Duchaine
Infectious diseases are caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses. When any of these become airborne, they can be transmitted to humans via the air. Among bacteria, legionellosis, tuberculosis, and anthrax are infectious diseases that constitute significant public health concerns due to their infectivity even at low doses. Legionella pneumophila, the etiological agent of legionellosis, can be aerosolized from contaminated water (Rowbotham 1980). Tuberculosis patients can transmit Mycobacterium tuberculosis in droplet nuclei by coughing, sneezing, and talking (Pearson et al. 1992). Anthrax, which is often linked to bioterrorism, is caused by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis spores (Jernigan et al. 2001). Other examples of bacterial infection through aerosols include Chlamydia psittaci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Lyczak, Cannon, and Pier 2000; Morawska 2006). The most common invasive fungal infections are aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus), candidiasis (Candida albicans), cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus neoformans), mucormycosis (Rhizopus oryzae), pneumocystis (Pneumocystis jirovecii), coccidioidomycosis (Coccodioides immitis), histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum), paracoccodioidomycosis (Paracoccidioides brasilliensis), and penicilliosis (Penicillium marneffei), all of which can be transmitted through aerosol spore exposure (Brown et al. 2012). Finally, viruses that are readily transmitted by bioaerosols include severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, enteric viruses, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), hantavirus, varicella–zoster virus, mumps virus, rubella virus, and influenza A and B viruses (Bonifait et al. 2015; Gershon 2008; Hjelle and Glass 2000; Lindsley et al. 2010; Matricardi et al. 2000; Tellier 2009; Teltsch and Katzenelson 1978; Uyeki, Bresee 2007; Booth et al. 2005). It was suggested that other viruses, such as norovirus, could reach human’s digestive system through inhalation and swallowing (Bonifait et al. 2015). Although obvious evidence of viral airborne transmission is available, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are still skeptical about the subject of airborne transmission from one patient to the other (CDC 2018).
Comparison of the performance of aerosol sampling devices with aerosols containing Ebola virus
Published in Aerosol Science and Technology, 2021
Michael A. Schuit, Jill Taylor, Rebecca Dunning, David Miller, Denise Freeburger, Luis Faisca, Victoria Wahl, Paul A. Dabisch
Human-to-human transmission of Ebola virus (EBOV) is thought to occur primarily through direct contact with body fluids of infected patients (Chowell and Nishiura 2014; Mate et al. 2015). While there is little epidemiological evidence that transmission via aerosols contributes to the spread of the virus during outbreaks, some human Ebola virus disease (EVD) cases are documented with no such instances of close contact (Roels et al. 1999). While these cases may simply reflect incomplete case documentation, it is also possible that they reflect a subset of transmission events mediated by small droplets or aerosols. EBOV RNA has been detected in air samples in biocontainment laboratories housing infected non-human-primates (Harbourt et al. 2017), and laboratory animals have become infected with EBOV after being housed in the same facility as infected animals but with no direct contact, suggesting the possibility of aerosol transmission (Jaax et al. 1995; Weingartl et al. 2012). Additionally, laboratory studies have shown that the virus can remain infectious in aerosols for over an hour (Belanov et al. 1996; Piercy et al. 2010; Schuit et al. 2016), and that low doses of aerosolized virus can produce lethal infection in nonhuman primates. While it is unknown if EBOV-containing aerosols can be generated from the respiratory tract of infected patients, certain medical interventions, and even routine actions such as flushing toilets, have the potential to generate virus-containing aerosols that may spread disease from infected to uninfected individuals (Alsved et al. 2020; Davies et al. 2009; Johnson et al. 2013; Judson and Munster 2019). The incomplete epidemiological record, combined with the documented transmission and prolonged survival in aerosols in laboratory settings, suggest that aerosol transmission may be feasible under some circumstances. Furthermore, the high rates of morbidity and mortality associated with human cases of EVD have contributed to concerns that this virus could be used as an agent of bioterrorism, with historical precedents for attempted weaponization of both EBOV and the closely related Marburg virus (MARV) (Alibek 2008; Borio et al. 2002; Cenciarelli et al. 2015). A bioterrorism incident involving EBOV has the potential for infection via inhalation outside of natural transmission pathways.