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The Design of the Air Traffic Control System
Published in Steven J. Landry, Handbook of Human Factors in Air Transportation Systems, 2017
TCAS is an aircraft-based system that monitors and tracks nearby transponder-equipped aircraft. This position and relative altitude of nearby aircraft are constantly displayed on a TCAS display located in the cockpit of each aircraft. TCAS I provides proximity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TCAS I warning. It is intended for use by smaller commuter aircraft holding 10 to 30 passenger seats, and general aviation aircraft. TCAS II provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories. Resolution advisories provide recommended maneuvers in a vertical direction (climb or descent only) to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline aircraft, and larger commuter and business aircraft holding 31 passenger seats or more, use TCAS II equipment. TCAS III provides all the capabilities of TCAS II but adds the capability to provide horizontal maneuver commands. All three versions of TCAS monitor the location of nearby transponder-equipped aircraft. Current technology does not permit TCAS to monitor aircraft not transponder equipped.
Traffic alert and collision avoidance systems
Published in Mike Tooley, David Wyatt, Aircraft Communications and Navigation Systems, 2017
This is the industry standard system mandated for use by commercial transport aircraft, and the main subject of this chapter. Two types of TCAS are in operation, TCAS I and II. Both systems provide warnings known as ‘advisories’ to alert the crew of a potential collision. TCAS I assists the crew in visually locating and identifying an intruder aircraft by issuing a traffic advisory (TA) warning. TCAS II is a collision avoidance system and, in addition to traffic advisories, provides vertical flight manoeuvre guidance to the crew. This is in the form of a resolution advisory (RA) for threat traffic. A resolution advisory will either increase or maintain the existing vertical separation from an intruder aircraft. If two aircraft in close proximity are equipped with TCAS II, the flight manoeuvre guidance is coordinated between both aircraft. A third type of system (TCAS III) was intended to provide lateral guidance to the crew; however, this has been superseded by a new concept: automatic dependence surveillance broadcast (ADS-B).
Current Safety Problems
Published in Harry W. Orlady, Linda M. Orlady, John K. Lauber, Human Factors in Multi-Crew Flight Operations, 2017
Harry W. Orlady, Linda M. Orlady, John K. Lauber
Another of the terminology differences that plague nearly everyone but the regulators and politicians, occurs because the US FAA terminology is called TCAS (traffic alert and collision avoidance system), while in ICAO it is called ACAS (airborne collision avoidance system). The FAA has required TCAS II on all transport aircraft having 30 or more seats since 31 December 1993, and TCAS I on aircraft having 10 to 30 seats since 10 February 1995. EUROCONTROL (a group of 33 European nations with the term further defined in the glossary) requires that all aircraft with at least 30 seats will be required to have TCAS/ACAS II by 1 January 2000. Cargo airplanes will be required to comply in EUROCONTROL nations. TCAS I, or its equivalent, which does not give any advisory information (TA), is not recognized by EUROCONTROL. Airplanes having from 19 to 30 seats will not be required to comply with this regulation until 2005.
Qualitative Analysis of General Aviation Pilots’ Aviation Safety Reporting System Incident Narratives Using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System
Published in The International Journal of Aerospace Psychology, 2023
Lakshmi Vempati, Sabrina Woods, Robert C. Solano
DHL Flight 611 and Bashkirian Flight 2937 collided in 2002 over the skies of Überlingen, Germany killing all on board both aircraft. The two aircraft entering Swiss airspace were accidentally set on a collision course by the one controller working the airspace at the time. The traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) onboard both aircraft attempted to deconflict the flight paths, however the crew of the Bashkirian flight elected to ignore it and instead followed the guidance of the controller, who had no knowledge of the TCAS alerting. While the pivotal accident typically serves as a case study for systemic issues in air traffic control (Bennett, 2004), the decisions of the Bashkirian crew played a significant role in the accident causation chain. This mishap can also be applied to all four levels of the HFACS model.
Hybrid simulated annealing and reduced variable neighbourhood search for an aircraft scheduling and parking problem
Published in International Journal of Production Research, 2020
Shuang Zheng, Zhen Yang, Zhengwen He, Nengmin Wang, Chengbin Chu, Haiyang Yu
The TCA scheduling problem focuses on scheduling aircraft takeoff and landing operations within a given time horizon while considering limited resources in an airport TCA, such as holding circles, landing or takeoff air segments, common glide paths, and runways (Samà, D’Ariano, Corman, et al. 2017). Samà et al. (2014) studied a real-time aircraft scheduling and routing problem for TCAs with the goal of minimising maximum consecutive delay to mitigate the effects of severe traffic disturbances. The problem was modelled as a job shop scheduling problem and solved using a commercial solver. D’Ariano et al. (2015) studied a similar scheduling problem for TCAs and proposed heuristic and exact algorithms to solve collaborative and non-collaborative cases of the problem. Later, Samà et al. (2018) proposed four scheduling policies with four performance indicators to coordinate taxiway scheduling and airborne scheduling. Because there is no recognised objective function for the TCA scheduling problem, Samà, D’Ariano, D’Ariano, et al. (2017) also investigated the tradeoff between some classical performance indicators. Ng et al. (2018) presented a detailed review of airside operation research.
Performance Shaping Factor Dependency Assessment Based on International Civil Aviation Accident Report Data
Published in International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 2023
Yanlong Wang, Lijing Wang, Dayong Dong, Yingchun Chen, Yabin Hao
In this study, the HMI issues involved in the accident process are more about Aircraft System/Component Failure and the Availability of Safety and Support Systems. A qualified airline pilot is basically able to deal with routine flight tasks under normal conditions, and human errors are more likely to occur during performing abnormal procedures. When aircraft systems/components fail, or in situations where available safety and support systems (such as the Traffic Collision Avoidance System, TCAS) are not installed, challenging flight scenarios and missions are more possible, placing higher demands on pilot capabilities and crew coordination. Therefore, in these cases, it is more likely to expose crew deficiencies in knowledge and experience, flight skills, perceptual and decision-making, stress coping, and other cognitive and psychological characteristics. In addition, sound crew resource management also has an important effect on the success of the crew to cope with abnormal scenarios and recover from unsafe conditions, so as to avoid the occurrence of aviation accidents/incidents. Therefore, a considerable proportion of the effects of HMI on crew errors are through CRM and Cognitive and Psychological Characteristics. However, the HMI issues are negatively correlated with CRM and Cognitive and Psychological Characteristics issues (the logistic regression coefficients are negative), that is, if there are HMI problems during the accident process, the possibilities of CRM and Cognitive and Psychological Characteristics problems will decrease. The reason for this result is similar to the previous discussion that HMI is negatively related to the odds of crew error.