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Sampling Theory
Published in Marcello Pagano, Kimberlee Gauvreau, Heather Mattie, Principles of Biostatistics, 2022
Marcello Pagano, Kimberlee Gauvreau, Heather Mattie
To illustrate the concept of stratification, consider that during the Great Depression, neighborhoods across the United States were classified by the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), an agency of the Federal Government [313]. The HOLC were tasked with refinancing home mortgages that were in default to prevent their foreclosure. Neighborhoods were graded and color coded, primarily as a function of their racial/ethnic makeup and wealth status. The example in Figure 21.3 demonstrates the classification of towns surrounding Boston in 1938. The classes are, in decreasing order of mortgage lending risk: grade 1, dark green; grade 2, blue; grade 3, yellow; and grade 4, red. There is a lot of information included in this labeling, even to this day, as this social policy has had such a lasting effect. In general, since variability is the bane of biostatistics – and there is much less variability within a neighborhood of one color than there is across neighborhoods of different colors – it would seem ill-advised to ignore this information if our ultimate aim is to make inference about the population as a whole. Theory agrees with our intuition.
John Arderne’s Treatises on Sungery
Published in John Arderne, D’arcy Power, Treatises of Fistula in Ano, 2019
[A] man was smyten on his legge vpon peshynbone, but neþerlesse þe skyn was noȝt cleuen1 alsone after þesmytyng. Afterward, forsoþe, þe þrid day it bolned and bigan to ake. þerfor he went to a man þat hauntedor vsed sich cure vnto þe tyme þat þer come in his legge ane holc, rounde and depe, and ful of blak filth inmaner of brent flesch; whome whan he come to me I heled hym þus. ffirst I wasched þe wonnde with hotewyne, or water in which was decocte þe croppeȝ or þe iuyse of plantayne or sich, or in vryne. Afterward Iputte to ane emplastre made of iuyse of playntayne, of rubarb, of smalach, of hony, and whete or rie mele & white of eyren y-medled togidre; or ane emplastre þat is called sanguiboetes. Afterward, þe place sumwhatmollified, I putte to poudre Creoferoboron, with þe medicine of arsenec y-medlet; aboue þe poudre stupeȝor carp; aboue al-togidre, forsoþe, þe emplastre of apii, mugwort, walwort seid afore. After þe puttyng toforsoþe of þis poudre, I did þe cure in al þings with lard & with oþer þings, as it is seid aboue, vnto þeclensyng of þe wounde. Afterward, forsoþ, with vnguento viridi & vnguento albo and carp I wroȝt in maneras it is seid aboue vnto þe ende. Afterward, forsoþ, when þer growed or wex any superflue flesch in þe wounde, Iwithstode it or mette it with poudre of creoferoboron or of litarge vnte þe fulle curyng of þe wounde. If anypustuleȝ wex in þe leg about þe wounde, þou may cure para with vnguento albo, as it is seid aboue. fforsoþ if þe wonde be in þe leg of swerd or ax or sich oþer, be it cured as ben oþer woundes. If anyman, forsoþ, be smyten in any party of þe legge violently and without wondyng of þe skynne, as fallepoft-tyme of þe smytyng of ane horse fote, or of a stone or of sicli oþer, þan is it gode sone in þe bigynnyng forto garse þe place y-smyt-en and for to draw out blode þer-of, and afterward for to putte to emplastreȝrepressyng þe akyng and bolnyng.
The moderating role of housing quality on concentrated poverty and asthma-related emergency department visits among Hispanics/Latinos
Published in Journal of Asthma, 2023
Emanuel Alcala, John A. Capitman, Ricardo Cisneros
Place-based research has illustrated the connection between policies, environmental conditions, and health. Nardone et al. (10) conducted an in-depth ecological study investigating age-adjusted asthma ED visits in association to the redlining practices of the Home Owner’s Loan Corporation (HOLC) and found a significant association. The authors suggest that historical redlining practices contribute to present-day asthma disparities. Another study found that HOLC redlining maps of the 1930s were strongly associated with modern day green space across the U.S. (23). In intraurban communities across the nation, present-day variation in air pollution and disparities in exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM2.5) is strongly associated to redlining maps developed by HOLC, delineating favorable versus unfavorable neighborhoods and, to a lesser degree, race, and ethnicity (24). This suggests that housing policies are only one of many contributors to disparate environmental exposures across racial/ethnic groups. It should be noted that within California, there has been a substantial amount of work showing that black and brown communities are exposed to the highest degrees of cumulative environmental hazards (12) and that concentration of Hispanics/Latinos, in particular, demonstrate the highest exposure to cumulative pollution (24,25). In turn, cumulative exposure to environmental hazards has been shown to be associated with asthma-related health outcomes (6) including the joint effect of ambient air pollution and agricultural pesticide exposure (26,27). Bose et al. (28) concisely summarize the recent literature on redlining practices, air pollution, and asthma, and reorient the field to focus on structural racism as the direct drive of asthma health disparities rather than race as a risk factor for health inequities and a target for intervention.