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Toxic cyanobacteria *
Published in Jamie Bartram, Rachel Baum, Peter A. Coclanis, David M. Gute, David Kay, Stéphanie McFadyen, Katherine Pond, William Robertson, Michael J. Rouse, Routledge Handbook of Water and Health, 2015
Cylindrospermopsin is a tricyclic alkaloid that is highly water-soluble, heat-stable and potentially more persistent than MCYSTs in varying light and pH conditions. It is known to be produced by several bloom-forming species of cyanobacteria (Table 9.1) originally reported in tropical waters. However, it appears that one of the primary producers, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, is increasingly being reported in temperate waters. Cylindrospermopsin causes extensive damage primarily to liver and kidney and although the mode of toxicity is not completely understood, it appears the toxin inhibits protein synthesis by interfering with protein elongation (Falconer, 2005). Exposure to cylindrospermopsin has been shown to induce morphological changes in red blood cells in animals, which may be linked to the cylindrospermopsin-mediated effects on the liver and kidney. Animal toxicity studies also suggest that cylindrospermopsin may be carcinogenic. Symptoms of cylindrospermopsin exposure include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal tenderness, pain and acute liver failure. Notably, clinical symptoms may immediately not show up following exposure, but may occur several days later. Currently, few countries have implemented drinking or recreational water quality guidelines for cylindrospermopsin.
Cyanotoxin genotoxicity: a review
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Serkan Yilmaz, Taha Gökmen Ülger, Bayram Göktaş, Şahlan Öztürk, Duygu Öztaş Karataş, Ebru Beyzi
The most studied group of cyanotoxins is microcystins (MC) which known as liver toxins; anatoxin-a and saxitoxins show strong neurotoxic effects (McLellan and Manderville 2017). Cylindrospermopsin (CYN), which is one of the hazardous cyanotoxin in fresh water sources worldwide, is highly resistant to light, temperature and pH conditions and has cytotoxic, hepatotoxic and genotoxic effects (De La Cruz et al. 2013). CYN can be produced by a large number of cyanobacteria, which can be released into the environment at significantly higher extracellular concentrations compared to MC (Boopathi and Ki 2014). Therefore, it is one of the most widely distributed cyanotoxins detected in water bodies in tropical, subtropical and even temperate regions. In US EPA Contaminant Candidate List 3, the safety value of CYN for drinking water has been determined as 1 µg L−1 (Munoz et al. 2019). The tolerable daily intake level for MC and CYN is stated as 0.04 and 0.03 μg kg−1 body weight (Diez-Quijada Jiménez et al. 2020).
An overview on cyanobacterial blooms and toxins production: their occurrence and influencing factors
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Isaac Yaw Massey, Muwaffak Al osman, Fei Yang
Cylindrospermopsin originally isolated from the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, is an alkaloid cytotoxin consisting of a tricyclic guanidine moiety, hydroxymethyluracil and sulfate (Ohtani et al.1992). It has a molecular weight of 415 Da (Falconer 1999). Cylindrospermopsin was first discovered in tropical Australian waters (Hawkins et al.1985) and has subsequently been found in a number of water bodies across the globe (Chiswell et al.1999, Carmichael et al.2001, Mowe et al. 2015, Svircev et al.2019). It is of interest cyanobacteria species including Umezakia natans, Anabaena bergii, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, Aphanizomenon flosaquae and Raphidiopsis curvata (Falconer 2005) can also produce this toxin. Cylindrospermopsin is capable of inhibiting protein synthesis, glutathione and cytochrome P450 to cause pathological symptoms in the liver, intestine, kidneys, heart, spleen, thymus and eye (Runnegar et al.1994, Terao et al.1994, Sivonen and Jones 1999). Kiss et al. (2002) and Humpage et al. (2000) also demonstrated that the alkaloid toxin can induce genotoxic and neurotoxic effects. Human health issues attributed to this toxin occurred in Palm Island, Queensland, Australia in 1979. About 148 people were reported poisoned after Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii blooms in a drinking water reservoir was treated with copper sulfate, which resulted in cyanobacterial cells lyse, releasing large amount of cylindrospermopsin into the water. The affected individuals exhibited signs of headache, fever, vomiting and bloody diarrhea (Hawkins et al.1985). In view of cylindrospermopsin toxic manifestations, a necessary drinking water guideline is being considered by WHO (Sivonen and Jones 1999) and USA (EPA 2006). It is worth knowing that Falconer (2005) recommended a tentative guideline value of 1 µg/L concentration for this cyanotoxin.