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The Challenge of Parasite Control
Published in Eric S. Loker, Bruce V. Hofkin, Parasitology, 2023
Eric S. Loker, Bruce V. Hofkin
Besides being safer, inactivated vaccines are easier and less expensive to produce. Their biggest drawback, as mentioned earlier, is that they do not closely mimic a natural infection and are consequently less effective than live vaccines. Furthermore, because killed preparations are pH labile and vulnerable to harsh stomach conditions, they usually must be injected, even if the parasite in question is not blood-borne. The efficacy of killed vaccines can often be increased by including adjuvants in the vaccine preparation. An adjuvant is a compound that increases the immune response to the antigens with which it is mixed. Often these adjuvants are ligands for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) that readily bind TLRs on antigen-presenting cells (see the online review of vertebrate immunology).
Taming the Enemy
Published in Norman Begg, The Remarkable Story of Vaccines, 2023
The increasing use of adjuvants has raised further concerns about their safety. Adjuvanted vaccines do increase the risk of common side effects such as pain, swelling, fever. This is a small price to pay. There have been claims that adjuvants can cause more serious side effects; however, to date there is no scientific evidence to justify this. They are likely to feature in many of the new vaccines in development.
The Inducible System: Antigens
Published in Julius P. Kreier, Infection, Resistance, and Immunity, 2022
Adjuvants (from the Latin adjuvare, meaning to help) are substances added to antigen preparations to enhance their immunogenicity. This type of help is important if the antigen is not very immunogenic or in short supply. Adjuvants may or may not be immunogenic in themselves. They are frequently irritating and cause mild inflammation, thus activating cells of the immune system and attracting them to the site of antigen deposition. Some adjuvants bind the antigen tightly and release it slowly after injection, thus prolonging the antigenic stimulation. Most vaccines used in human and veterinary medicine contain adjuvants. Alum (aluminum potassium sulfate) is the most commonly used adjuvant in human medicine. In addition to delaying the release of the antigen, the high salt concentration precipitates the antigen, making it a larger target for phagocytosis by antigen presenting cells.
Overcoming clinical challenges of refractory neuropathic pain
Published in Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 2022
Iulia Pirvulescu, Alexandras Biskis, Kenneth D Candido, Nebojsa Nick Knezevic
Neuropathic pain is a broad clinical term describing a variety of symptoms and conditions affecting the nervous system. Unfortunately, these conditions are frequently unresponsive to conventional treatment. Diverse treatment modalities, with a range of invasiveness, have been studied in patients with demonstrated refractory neuropathic pain. Several pharmacological approaches have involved drug infusions as opposed to oral administration of compounds such as ketamine. Testing of adjuvants has proven useful in improving safety and effectiveness of other, more conventional treatments. Some drugs such as botulinum toxin type A are being administered through subcutaneous injections. Nerve blocks and intrathecal injection have shown efficiency by providing a more targeted administration. Interventional therapies, through the neuromodulation of different parts of the central and peripheral nervous systems, are currently among the most promising treatments with several large clinical trials published and currently ongoing. Although there is a dire need for high-quality evidence throughout the treatment modalities, the wealth and diversity of clinical trials initiated in the past 5 years shows promise.
Nano-sized drug delivery systems to potentiate the immune checkpoint blockade therapy
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, 2022
Man Kyu Shim, Su Kyung Song, Seong Ik Jeon, Kwang Yeon Hwang, Kwangmeyung Kim
Immunological adjuvants, such as layered double hydroxide (LDH), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), TLR agonists, and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), play an important role in activating APCs and facilitating T cell-mediated antitumor immune responses [66]. Generally, adjuvants have been widely applied to enhance the immunogenicity and efficacy of cancer vaccines [17]. Thus, the co-delivery of adjuvants and antigens has been an effective approach for cancer immunotherapy [67]. However, recent advances have shown a variety of applications in Nano-DDS for the combination of adjuvants with PTT [68]. This strategy has been designed to enhance the lymphatic drainage ability and stimulate the innate immune system using an adjuvant, and endogenous TAAs released as a result of local PTT-induced hyperpyrexia further enhance the T cell activation [69]. In addition, the targeted delivery of adjuvants also minimizes their critical limitations, such as ‘wasted inflammation’ by prompt dissemination and high risk of severe toxicity.
Interventions with Serious Games and Entertainment Games in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review
Published in Developmental Neuropsychology, 2021
Gabriella Medeiros Silva, Jandirlly Julianna de Souza Souto, Thiago P. Fernandes, Ivan Bolis, Natanael A. Santos
Interventions for ASD vary according to the challenges. However, interventions are frequently related to reducing these, improving daily functioning and quality of life (DeFilippis & Wagner, 2016). Interventions typically include behavioral and cognitive therapies, such as applied behavior analysis (Roane, Fisher, & Carr, 2016) and the treatment and education of autistic and related communication handicapped children (D’Elia et al., 2014), just to name a few. However, these may have some limitations, like the time required to obtain satisfactory improvements, the difficulty of using the learned skills in daily routine, and, often, the patient’s lack of motivation to work on these skills (Koegel, Camarata, Koegel, Ben-Tall, & Smith, 1998). Pharmacological therapy can also be used as an adjuvant to aid treatment. The main drugs used to treat characteristics associated with ASD (e.g., aggressive behavior) are antipsychotics such as haloperidol, risperidone and aripiprazole (Aman et al., 2015; LeClerc & Easley, 2015; McDougle et al., 2005; Miral et al., 2008). However, medication is not always functional, as ASD is a complex disorder and, hence, medication might not help everyone’s symptoms. Therefore, studies seek to find interventions that can offer effective, cheaper and less time-consuming options with little or no side effects (DeFilippis & Wagner, 2016).