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Chikungunya Fever: Emergence and Reality
Published in Jagriti Narang, Manika Khanuja, Small Bite, Big Threat, 2020
Neelam Yadav, Bennet Angel, Jagriti Narang, Surender Singh Yadav, Vinod Joshi
The transmission of CHIKV is mediated by two mosquito vectors: Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. A. albopictus has been found in 36 states of the United States and has been conferred as the metropolitan carrier for disease transmission in these areas (Lanciotti et al., 2007). Earlier A. aegypti was considered the key vector; however, due to mutation by replacing alanine with valine at the 226th position in the E1 gene, it led to flattering species change with A. albopictus replacing alanine (Santosh et al., 2008; Tsetsarkin et al., 2007; Vazeille et al., 2007). The female Aedes mosquitoes ingest blood as a meal from an infected person. The virus multiplies inside the mosquito, which makes the mosquito infective. Upright infection of CHIKV, that is, egg to larvae to adult and transmission in humans from mother to child, has also been reported. Ramful et al. (2007) have reported transplacental transmission of virus from mother to fetus, which led to the death of the growing fetus. Another research group reported similar condition in a study of 19 neonates (Gerardin et al., 2007). In addition to these, the virus circulating in humans and mosquitoes, a transmission cycle known as “zoonotic cycle” or “sylvatic cycle” also occurs (Fig. 5.6).
Overview of Drugs used Against Zika Virus
Published in Venkatesan Jayaprakash, Daniele Castagnolo, Yusuf Özkay, Medicinal Chemistry of Neglected and Tropical Diseases, 2019
Sinem Ilgın, Özlem Atlı Eklioğlu, Begüm Nurpelin Sağlık, Serkan Levent
ZIKV transmission is classified both as vector-borne and non-vector-borne. Vector-borne transmission develops via infected Aedes sp. mosquitoes. Besides, non-vector-borne transmission occurs via transplacental, blood and sexual routes in humans (Koppolu and Shantha Raju 2018, McDonald and Holden 2018, Simanjuntak et al. 2018). Also, ZIKV was isolated from urine, blood, semen, vaginal secretions, saliva, spinal fluid, amniotic fluid and breast milk in humans (McDonald and Holden 2018, Simanjuntak et al. 2018, Wikan and Smith 2016). A ZIKV sylvatic cycle of transmission is established between nonhuman primates and forest-dwelling mosquitoes (Althouse et al. 2016, Wikan and Smith 2016). At this point, it should be emphasized that the majority of ZIKV-related cases with vector-infected incidental hosts are associated with sylvatic cycle (Wikan and Smith 2016).
Viruses
Published in Loretta A. Cormier, Pauline E. Jolly, The Primate Zoonoses, 2017
Loretta A. Cormier, Pauline E. Jolly
Oropouche virus infection is typically a self-limiting disease with symptoms of fever, headache, myalgia, nausea, arthralgia, and less commonly, meningitis (Bente 2015). It is characterized by both an urban and a sylvatic cycle. The sylvatic cycle involves Aedes and Culex mosquitoes, where it infects sloths, marsupials, primates, and birds (Mourão et al. 2009). The human-adapted urban cycle involves transmission through midges (Culicoides paraensis) (Mourão et al. 2009). Epidemic outbreaks can infect thousands (Bente 2015), but the number may be underestimated due to the similarity in symptoms to dengue, chikungunya, Mayaro, and Zika viruses (Navarro et al. 2016). Oropouche virus has been isolated in wild howlers (Alouatta guariba), capuchins (Cebus olivaceus), and marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), and antibodies to Oropouche have been detected in wild howlers and capuchins (references in table). In addition, antibodies to the Oropouche virus have also been found in captive howlers (Alouatta caraya) and capuchins (Cebus libidinosus) housed in Brazil (Gibrail et al. 2016; Laroque et al. 2014).
Prenatal and Postnatal Zika Intrauterine Infection: Diagnostic Imaging Techniques and Placental Pathology
Published in Fetal and Pediatric Pathology, 2023
Pedro Teixeira Castro, Heron Werner, Edward Araujo Júnior, Maria Paola Bonasoni, Gabriele Tonni
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus (arthropod-borne virus) in the Flavivirus genus and Flaviviridae family. It was first isolated in 1947, in the Zika forest in Uganda, during a routine surveillance for Yellow-fever virus and found in a sentinel rhesus monkey [1]. The virus has a sylvatic cycle in Africa, between nonhuman primates and mosquitoes. In other countries, the ZIKV has adapted to humans as reservoir, changing to the human-mosquito-human cycle. During the first months of 2015, ZIKV emerged in the Americas, and in November 2015, the uncommon diagnosis of 646 cases of microcephaly among fetuses and newborns in Pernambuco state (Northeastern Brazil) raised concern for a possible association between ZIKV and fetal microcephaly [2,3]. Fetal exposure to the ZIKV has potential teratogenic effect, with wide clinical manifestations, denominated as congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) [4].
Mayaro virus detection in patients from rural and urban areas in Trinidad and Tobago during the Chikungunya and Zika virus outbreaks
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2021
Gabriel Gonzalez-Escobar, Candice Churaman, Carlos Rampersad, Risha Singh, SueMin Nathaniel
It has been proposed that Haemagogus mosquitoes are the main vectors for MAYV. A recent study [21] has shown the wide-spread distribution of Haemagogus species throughout the island of Trinidad. The authors noted that Haemagogus mosquito species which had restricted distribution in Trinidad up to 1995 are now found to be widespread on the island, being Haemagogus janthinomys the dominant species. The findings of that study also suggested that there may be alternative hosts and reservoirs of this virus in the sylvatic cycle in Trinidad, other than non-human primates. In the case of MAYVD, this could explain the expansion of the disease to areas where the virus was not previously isolated. Also, it has been established through proximity analysis that population settlements within a 1 km buffer of the forest peripherals may be at risk for any emerging arboviral disease associated with these mosquito vectors. Although the Haemagogus species are known to have diurnal habits and reside in tree canopies, some members of the Haemagogus species have demonstrated the ability to adapt to human environments [22]. All these data suggest that a combined territorial expansion of the virus and its vector has occurred and has favored the appearance of human infections by MAYV.
Neurological complications of Zika virus infection
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2018
ZIKV disease is a vector-borne infectious disease transmitted by mosquitoes from Aedes genus (A. aegypti and A. albopictus). In the urban cycle, ZIKV transmission is mediated predominantly by A. aegypti, the main primary vector, and to a lesser extension by A. albopictus; other Aedes species have also been implicated (A. africanus, A. apicoargenteus, A. furcifer, A. luteocephalus, A. opok, and A. vittatus) [4]. A. albopictus was involved in urban transmission in Gabon and Singapore. Sylvatic cycle involves Aedes mosquitoes, monkeys, and occasionally humans. A. aegypti is also vector for dengue, yellow fever, and chikungunya viruses, and co-circulation of these viruses has been reported during the outbreak in the Americas [4].