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An Overview of Parasite Diversity
Published in Eric S. Loker, Bruce V. Hofkin, Parasitology, 2023
Eric S. Loker, Bruce V. Hofkin
The kingdom Fungi includes organisms ranging from tiny single-celled microsporidians and chytrids to complex, multicellular mushrooms. Fungal parasites are usually discussed in mycology courses and most will not be emphasized in this book. Mycology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of fungi. However, parasitism is such a pervasive feature of fungal biology, and fungi are so frequently implicated as the cause of emerging diseases or extirpations of endangered species, it would be remiss not to include them in this overview of parasite diversity. Examples of the effects of parasitic fungi appear throughout the book.
Introduction to Cells, DNA, and Viruses
Published in Patricia G. Melloy, Viruses and Society, 2023
Our focus will be on eukaryotes, which are cells (including our cells) containing a nucleus and other organelles. However, viruses can also infect prokaryotes. The most well-known prokaryotes are bacteria. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (Alberts et al. 2019). There are two prokaryotic kingdoms: Archaea and Eubacteria. Archaea includes microorganisms (or microscopic organisms) that can live in extreme environments on the planet. Eubacteria includes microorganisms also known as bacteria and cyanobacteria (Minkoff and Baker 2004d).
Bacteria
Published in Julius P. Kreier, Infection, Resistance, and Immunity, 2022
There are presently considered to be two distinct Prokaryotic Kingdoms: (1) True Bacteria (Eubacteria) and (2) Archaebacteria; both of which are distinct from a third Kingdom: Eucarya (i.e., the eucaryotes), that includes all plants, animals, fungi, ciliates, cellular slime molds, flagellates, and microsporidia. However, some disagreement exists about the taxonomy and spelling as some authors divide the Eucarya into four separate kingdoms: (3) Protista, which includes water molds, slime molds, protozoa, and primitive eukaryotic algae; (4) Fungi, which includes yeast, multicellular molds including some with macroscopic forms; (5) Plants, and (6) Animals. If the three kingdom taxonomy is adhered to, then the four eukaryote kingdoms would be Phyla or Divisions within Eucarya. Note that the Protista and Fungi are comprised primarily of microorganisms.
Fungal and mycotoxin occurrence, affecting factors, and prevention in herbal medicines: a review
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Jingsheng Yu, Meihua Yang, Jianping Han, Xiaohui Pang
Kingdom fungi include approximately 2.2 to 3.8 million species, making it the second most abundant species in the eukaryotic kingdom (Hawksworth and Lücking 2017). In recent years, these microorganisms have been widely applied in various fields, such as environment, clinical medicine, and food (Xu et al. 2015, Marco et al. 2017, Powell and Rillig 2018, Pessôa et al. 2019). However, mycotoxin production is an inevitable problem. Previous studies have reported that the main mycotoxin-producing fungal genera included Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium (Williams et al. 2004, Chen et al. 2011, Perrone and Susca, 2017). Different factors affect the fungal contamination in herbal medicines such as the nutrition, growing environment, medicinal parts, processing methods, storage conditions, and packaging materials. The common chemical constituents of herbal medicines include fatty acid, flavonoid, and triterpenes. And the common herbal material processing methods involve stir-baking, boiling, and fermentation. In the meanwhile, herbal medicines can be derived from roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The growing environment of herb is also diverse, ranging from desert to marsh. Therefore, herbal medicines can be contaminated with various fungi and mycotoxins.
An overview on cyanobacterial blooms and toxins production: their occurrence and influencing factors
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Isaac Yaw Massey, Muwaffak Al osman, Fei Yang
The ancient cyanobacteria organisms, noticeable in rocks dating from the first thousand million years of the earth’s history and belong to the kingdom monera (Prokaryota), division eubacteria and class cyanobacteria (Ressom et al.1994, Omidi et al.2018), are a type of photosynthetic bacteria that live in water surface. As cyanobacteria colonies occur in shallow water, they appear in the fossil record in sedimentary rocks deposited in shallow seas and lakes. Cyanobacteria colonies identified as stromatolites emerge in rocks as fossilized mushroom shapes and sheets. Falconer (2005) reported that the Gunflint chert was one of the best stromatolite formations known in Lake Erie. It is of interest cyanobacteria was shown to possess a single circular chromosome completely sequenced in several species, plasmids and small circular strands of DNA (Schwabe 1988, Kaneko et al.1996). Whitton and Potts (2000) found that the chlorophyll-a and pigment phycocyanin observed in cyanobacteria photosynthetic membranes were responsible for the characteristic blue-green color of the many species. Pigments such as carotenoids and phycoerythrin which give a strong red color to some species may also be present (Bryant 1994).
Historical development of the statistical classification of causes of death and diseases
Published in Cogent Medicine, 2021
Musaed Ali Alharbi, Godfrey Isouard, Barry Tolchard
Classification entails the systematic arrangement of items into groups or classes according to certain criteria (Beldiman, 2008). Thompson (2003) contended that a basic form of classification is involved in the survival of all animals: “The ability to classify is common to all animals, for to survive animals must group other organisms into at least three classes: Those to be eaten, those to be avoided and those to associate with, especially members of their own class” (p. 788). Scientific classification goes a step further in that it includes the hierarchical arrangement of elements within each class according to governing criteria. Scientific classification reflects observed reality in a modelled structure based on the nomenclature or terminology of the system. In biology, the taxonomic ranks of species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom and domain are universally agreed upon as the structural nomenclature of the classification.