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The Viruses
Published in Julius P. Kreier, Infection, Resistance, and Immunity, 2022
At least twelve different hemagglutinin (H) and nine different neuraminidases (N) occur in influenza A. Reassortment gives rise to a large number of HN serotypes. A recombinant type A virus that contained the human type 1 neuraminidase and the swine flu hemagglutinin apparently caused the great flu pandemic of 1918–1919. This process of reassortment is referred to as “antigenic shift.” The possibility that the highly virulent “swine flu variant” was present in 1976 led to the vaccination of over 40 million people. However, a swine flu virus which was not highly virulent in man, caused the 1976 outbreak. A pathogenic avian influenza virus that caused human mortality was discovered in 1998 in Hong Kong. Killing millions of chickens suspected of carrying the infection in Hong Kong and surrounding regions apparently eliminated it.
Prevention and Control Strategies for the COVID-19 Pandemic
Published in Debmalya Barh, Kenneth Lundstrom, COVID-19, 2022
Isfendiyar Darbaz, Gizem Morris, Şükrü Tüzmen
Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a single-stranded RNA virus [7]. The word “corona” is derived from the Latin word for “crown”, which refers to the crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus. Coronaviruses are zoonotic, which means that they can spread from animals to humans. Since zoonotic diseases have an animal reservoir, eradication is extremely difficult. For example, avian influenza virus can be eradicated in farmed animals, turkeys, and ducks, but it returns every year because of its presence in wild birds. Avian influenza virus does not spread from person to person, but outbreaks in poultry farms happen every year all over the world [7]. Coronaviruses have been associated with other outbreaks in humans, including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) caused by SARS-CoV, and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) caused by MERS-CoV [8].
Biobased Products for Viral Diseases
Published in Mahendra Rai, Chistiane M. Feitosa, Eco-Friendly Biobased Products Used in Microbial Diseases, 2022
Gleice Ribeiro Orasmo, Giovanna Morghanna Barbosa do Nascimento, Maria Gabrielly de Alcântara Oliveira, Jéssica Missilany da Costa
Many medicinal plants have been reported as antivirals for influenza virus. The Sambucus nigra L. species showed antiviral activity against influenza A and B viruses (Krawitz et al. 2011) and the caffeic acid compound from this elderberry showed a strong inhibitory effect on influenza A virus replication (Porter and Bode 2017). The methanol extract of alder (Alnus japonica T.) has strong antiviral activity against the avian influenza virus subtype H9N2 (Tung et al. 2010). Houttuynia cordata T. extract inhibited influenza A virus (Choi et al. 2009), as well as its compounds methyl n-nonyl ketone, lauryl aldehyde and capryl aldehyde, showed anti-Influenza activity (Hayashi et al. 1995). Rasool et al. (2017) found the effectiveness of ginger (Zingiber officinale R.) in the treatment of avian influenza (H9N2). The active compound licorine, obtained from Lycoris radiata (L’Her.) Herb, inhibited the avian influenza virus (H5N1) (He et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2019).
Nano Antiviral Photodynamic Therapy: a Probable Biophysicochemical Management Modality in SARS-CoV-2
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, 2021
Khatereh Khorsandi, Sepehr Fekrazad, Farshid Vahdatinia, Abbas Farmany, Reza Fekrazad
The H1N1 influenza A virus, which originated in swine, leads to a global pandemic in 2009, and the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus has also led epidemics in southeast Asia in recent years. Influenza A RNA polymerase contains PA, PB1, and PB2 subunits, and the N-terminal domain of PA subunit shows endonuclease activity. To know potential new anti-influenza compounds, Shoji et al (2013) screened 12 fullerene derivatives utilizing an in vitro PA endonuclease inhibition assay. They showed 8 fullerene derivatives that inhibited the endonuclease activity of the PA N-terminal domain or full-length PA protein in vitro. In a cell culture model, they found that several fullerene derivatives inhibit influenza A viral infection and expression of influenza A nucleoprotein and nonstructural protein 1. These results confirm that fullerene derivatives are good candidates for improving the novel anti-influenza drugs [74].
Chicken toll-like receptors and their significance in immune response and disease resistance
Published in International Reviews of Immunology, 2019
Aamir Nawab, Lilong An, Jiang Wu, Guanghui Li, Wenchao Liu, Yi Zhao, Qimin Wu, Mei Xiao
ChTLR21 has been reported as a functional homolog to mammalian TLR9 at the amino acid sequences [33] and may have evolved convergently to recognize microbial DNA as a danger signal concomitant with immediate innate immune responses and initiation of adaptive immunity. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) is one of the highly studied TLR agonists. CpG ODN is a well-known ligand for TLR9 in mammals [2, 11]. A study has revealed that ChTLR21 is involved in the recognition of CpG ODN to stimulate immunological responses similar to mammals [33]. A case study has reported that CpG-ODN can enhance the humoral immune responses (serum IgG titers) and Th1 immunity (IFN-γ) in chicken when administered with the avian influenza virus (AIV) vaccine as the adjuvant [56, 57]. CpG ODN attaches with chTLR21 and this chTLR21 has been detected in several cells including macrophages and B cells [52, 58].
Basics of CD8 T-cell immune responses after influenza infection and vaccination with inactivated or live attenuated influenza vaccine
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2018
Daniil Korenkov, Irina Isakova-Sivak, Larisa Rudenko
Numerous human cell types are susceptible to influenza virus, but respiratory tract epithelium is the major target of influenza virus in humans [24]. In seasonal human influenza virus strains, the cells of the columnar airway epithelium are the major target for productive virus replication rather than other cell types (endothelial, lymphoid, myeloid, etc.). As regards zoonotic influenza viruses, the nonproductive avian influenza virus was recently shown to infect human neuronal tissue cells [25,26]. For highly pathogenic zoonotic viruses, enteric influenza infection with systemic virus dissemination to myeloid and placental cells, vertical transmission to the fetus, and development of polyinfection have been described [27]. In addition, ocular pathology has been observed in avian influenza virus infection of humans [28].